Illustrations

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Fish

Amphibians

Reptiles

Birds

Mammals

Illustrations by taxa

Amphibians

AMPHIBIANS: Frog

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<img alt="Leopard frog" src="../images/dsv/Photos/FrogLeopard%20CL06_1c.jpg">

Leopard frog (photo by Ted Hobert) (from Chapter 2)

Table 8.1.

<img alt="Chitinase activity in amphibians &amp; reptiles" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseAmphibReptiles%20T8_01.gif">

Table 8.6.

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of fish and amphibians" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesFishAmphib%20T8_07.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. a measurements of enzyme activity in the pyloric cecal tissue may account for the lower values, b frogs were fed, c frogs fasted at 5 C, * group C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram of pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

Table 9.4.

<img alt="Microbial counts in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCounts%20HindgutVert%20T9_04.gif">

<img alt="Populations of endocrine cells that are immunoreactive to peptides in the digestive system of the frog" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/NeurohumerolEndocrineCellsFrog%20F11_06.gif">

Figure 11.6. Populations of endocrine cells that are immunoreactive to peptides in the digestive system of the frog Rana catesbeiana. (From Fujita et al. 1981)

AMPHIBIANS: Mudpuppy

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<img alt="Mudpuppy" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Mudpuppy%20CL06_1a.jpg">

Mudpuppy (photo by Ted Hobert) (from Chapter 2)

Table 8.9. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of fish and amphibians" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesFishAmphib%20T8_07.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. a measurements of enzyme activity in the pyloric cecal tissue may account for the lower values, b frogs were fed, c frogs fasted at 5 C, * group C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram of pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

AMPHIBIANS: Salamander

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<img alt="Tiger salamander" src="../images/dsv/Photos/SalamanderTiger%20CL06_1b.jpg">

Tiger salamander (photo by Ted Hobert) (from Chapter 2)

<img alt="Salamander digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/SalamanderTigerGIT%20F5_03b.gif">

Figure 5.3. Tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) digestive tract. (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from Chapter 5)

Table 8.1. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in amphibians &amp; reptiles" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseAmphibReptiles%20T8_01.gif">

AMPHIBIANS: Toad

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<img alt="Carolina toad" src="../images/dsv/Photos/ToadCarolina%20CL06_1d.jpg">

Carolina toad (photo by Dr Michael Stoskopf) (from Chapter 2)

<img alt="Toad digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ToadGIT%20F5_03a.gif">

Figure 5.3. Toad (Bufo americanus) digestive tract. (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from Chapter 5)

Table 8.1. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in amphibians &amp; reptiles" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseAmphibReptiles%20T8_01.gif">

Fish

FISH: Barracuda

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Table 8.9

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancres of fish and amphibians" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesFishAmphib%20T8_07.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. a measurements of enzyme activity in the pyloric cecal tissue may account for the lower values, b frogs were fed, c frogs fasted at 5 C, * group C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram of pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

FISH: Bowfin

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FISH: Bowfin

<img alt="Bowfin" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Bowfin%20CL04_4a.jpg">

Bowfin (photo by Bruce Bauer)

Fish: Carp

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<img alt="Common carp" src="../images/dsv/Photos/CarpCommon%20CL05_2.jpg">

Common carp (photo by John Scarola)

Table 7.1. Effect of body temperature on digesta transit in fish

<img alt="Water temperature and feeding behavior in grass carp" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitWaterTemperatureGrassCarp%20T7_01.gif">

Table 9.3

<img alt="Microbial counts in the midgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsMidgutVert%20T9_03.gif">

Table 9.6.

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the midgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAMidgutVert%20T9_06.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

FISH: Chub

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<img alt="Sea chub gastrointestinal tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ChubSeaGIT%20F5_02d.gif">

Figure 5.2. Sea chub (Kyphosus sydneyanus) digestive tract (Horn 1989)

<img alt="Chub digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ChubGIT%20F5_01b.gif">

Figure 5.1. Chub (Leuciscus cepahlus) digestive tract (Harder1975a)

Table 9.7b.

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertB%20T9_07b.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

FISH: Dogfish

Table 8.9.

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of fish and amphibians" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesFishAmphib%20T8_07.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. a measurements of enzyme activity in the pyloric cecal tissue may account for the lower values, b frogs were fed, c frogs fasted at 5 C, * group C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram of pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

<img alt="Osmotic regulation in the dogfish" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ElectrolytesOsmoticRegulationDogfishShark%20F10_02.jpg">

Figure 10.2. Osmotic regulation in a typical elasmobranch, the dogfish shark (Squalus acanthias). Values for NaCl, Na+, Cl- and urea are given in mM or mEq per liter. Osmotic pressures (OP) of sea water (SW), body fluids and urine are given in mOsmoles per liter. (Modified from Kormanik 1992).

FISH: Eel

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<img alt="Eel digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/EelGIT%20F5_01e.gif">

Figure 5.1. Eel (Anguilla anguilla) digestive tract (Harder 1975a).

Table 8.9. (from CD Chapter 8)

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of fish and amphibians" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesFishAmphib%20T8_07.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. a measurements of enzyme activity in the pyloric cecal tissue may account for the lower values, b frogs were fed, c frogs fasted at 5 C, * group C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram of pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

Fish: Flounder

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<img alt="Model which would account for Na+, K+, and Cl- transport from the mucosal to the serosal surfaces of the flounder intestinal cell" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ElectrolytesModelTransportNaKCl%20F10_13.gif">

Figure 10.13. A model that would account for Na+, K+, and Cl- transport by flounder intestine. (From Frizzell et al. 1984)

FISH: Hagfish

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<img alt="Hagfish" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Hagfish%20CL04_1a.jpg">

Hagfish(Photo by Donald Flescher)

FISH: Herring

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Table 9.3

<img alt="Microbial counts in the midgut" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsMidgutVert%20T9_03.gif">

(From Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 9.6

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the midgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAMidgutVert%20T9_06.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

FISH: Lamprey

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<img alt="Pacific lamprey" src="../images/dsv/Photos/LampreyPacific%20CL04_1b.jpg">

Pacific lamprey (from Wydoski & Whitney 1979)

<img alt="Pacific lamprey mouth" src="../images/dsv/Photos/LampreyPacificMouth%20CL04_1c.jpg">

Pacific lamprey mouth (from Wydoski & Whitney 1979)

<img alt="Sea Lamprey digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/LampreySeaGIT%20F5_01a.gif">

Figure 5.1. Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) digestive tract (Harder 1975a)

FISH: Mullet

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<img alt="Mullet gastrointestinal tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MulletGIT%20F5_02c.gif">

Figure 5.2. Mullet (mugil cephalus) digestive tract (Horn 1989)

FISH: Paddlefish

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<img alt="Blue paddlefish" src="../images/dsv/Photos/PaddlefishBlueCL04_5.jpg">

Blue paddlefish (photo by John MacGregor)

FISH: Parrotfish

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<img alt="Blue parrotfish" src="../images/dsv/Photos/ParrotfishBlue%20CL05_3b.jpg">

Blue parrotfish (photo by John Randall)

<img alt="Blue parrotfish" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ParrotfishGIT%20F5_02b.gif">

Figure 5.2. Parrotfish (Scarus rubroviolaceus) digestive tract (Horn 1989)

FISH: Pike

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<img alt="Pike" src="../images/dsv/Photos/PikeNorthern%20CL05_1a.jpg">

Northern pike (photo by John Scarola) (from CD Chapter 2)

<img alt="Pike digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/PikeGIT%20F5_01c.gif">

Figure 5.1 Pike (Esox lucius) digestive tract (Harder 1975a) (from CD Chapter 5)

FISH: Sea bass

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<img alt="Microbial counts in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCounts%20HindgutVert%20T9_04.gif">

Table 9.4. (from Chapter 9)

(From Stevens and Hume 1995)

FISH: Shark

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<img alt="Basking shark" src="../images/dsv/Photos/SharkBasking%20CL04_2b.jpg">

Basking shark (photo by Dan Gotshall) (from Chapter 2)

<img alt="Leopard shark" src="../images/dsv/Photos/SharkLeopard%20CL04_2a.jpg">

Leopard shark (photo by Dan Gotshall) (from Chapter 2)

Table 8.9. ((from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of fish and amphibians" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesFishAmphib%20T8_07.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. a measurements of enzyme activity in the pyloric cecal tissue may account for the lower values, b frogs were fed, c frogs fasted at 5 C, * group C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram of pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

<img alt="Osmotic regulation in a typical elasmobranch" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ElectrolytesOsmoticRegulationDogfishShark%20F10_02.jpg">

Figure 10.2. Osmotic regulation in a typical elasmobranch, the dogfish shark (Squalus acanthias). Values for NaCl, Na+, Cl- and urea are given in mM or mEq per liter. Osmotic pressures (OP) of sea water (SW), body fluids and urine are given in mOsmoles per liter. (Modified from Kormanik 1992)

FISH: Skate

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<img alt="Barndoor skate" src="../images/dsv/Photos/SkateBarndoor%20CL04_3a.jpg">

Barndoor skate (photo by Donald Flescher)

FISH: Stingray

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<img alt="Bluntnose stingray" src="../images/dsv/Photos/StingrayBluntnose%20CL04_3b.jpg">

Bluntnose stingray (photo by Donald Flescher)

Table 8.9.

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of fish and amphibians" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesFishAmphib%20T8_07.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. a measurements of enzyme activity in the pyloric cecal tissue may account for the lower values, b frogs were fed, c frogs fasted at 5 C, * group C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram of pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

FISH: Sturgeon

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<img alt="Shovelnose sturgeon" src="../images/dsv/Photos/SturgeonShovelnose%20CL04_4b.jpg">

Shovelnose sturgeon (photo by William Pflieger)

FISH: Sturgeon

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(nothing)

FISH: Surgeonfish

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<img alt="Ocean surgeonfish" src="../images/dsv/Photos/SurgeonfishOcean%20CL05_3a.jpg">

Ocean surgeonfish (photo by John Randall)

<img alt="Surgeonfish gastrointestinal tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/SurgeonfishGIT%20F5_02a.gif">

Figure 5.2. Surgeonfish (Acanthurus nigrofuscus) digestive tract. (Horn 1989)

FISH: Trout

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<img alt="Rainbow trout" src="../images/dsv/Photos/TroutRainbow%20CL05_1b.jpg">

Rainbow trout (photo by John Scarola) (from Chapter 2)

<img alt="Trout digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/TroutGIT%20F5_01d.gif">

Figure 5.1. Trout (Salmo fario) digestive tract. (Harder 1975a) (from Chapter 5)

Table 9.3. (from Chapter 9)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the midgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsMidgutVert%20T9_03.gif">

Table 9.6. (from Chapter 9)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the midgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAMidgutVert%20T9_06.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

FISH: Tuna

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Table 8.9.

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of fish and amphibians" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesFishAmphib%20T8_07.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. a measurements of enzyme activity in the pyloric cecal tissue may account for the lower values, b frogs were fed, c frogs fasted at 5 C, * group C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram of pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

Reptiles

REPTILES: Caiman

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<img alt="Spectacled caiman digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/CaimanSpectacledGIT%20F5_04a.gif">

Figure 5.4. Spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from CD Chapter 5)

Table 7.2. Mean digesta retention time in reptiles (from CD Chapter 7)

<img alt="Transit time through the gastrointestinal tract of reptiles" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitGITReptiles%20T7_02.gif">

Liquid marker was polyethylene glycol or BaSO4. Particulate markers were segments of polyethylene tubing.

Table 11.4. (from CD Chapter 11)

<img alt="Gastrointestinal endocrine cells in the caiman" src="../images/dsv/Tables/NeurohumerolEndocrineCellsCaiman%20T11_03.gif">

—absent, + rare (not detected in every animal), + few (detected in every animal but not every section), ++ moderate, +++numerous. (from Yamada et al. 1987)

Reptiles-Chameleon

(nothing)

REPTILES: Crocodile

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<img alt="Crocodile" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Crocodile%20CL07_1a.jpg">

Crocodile (photo by Dr Michael Stskopf) (from CD Chapter 2)

REPTILES: Iguana

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<img alt="Iguana" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Iguana%20CL07_3a.jpg">

Iguana (photo by Dr Michael Stoskopf) (from CD Chapter 2)

<img alt="Green iguana digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/IguanaGreenGIT%20F5_04f.gif">

Figure 5.4. Green iguana (Iguana iguana) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from CD Chapter 5)

Table 7.2. Mean digesta retention time in reptiles (from CD Chapter 7))

<img alt="Transit time through the gastrointestinal tract of reptiles" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitGITReptiles%20T7_02.gif">

Liquid marker was polyethylene glycol or BaSO4. Particulate markers were segments of polyethylene tubing.

Table 7.4. Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous colon fermenters (from CD Chapter 7)

<img alt="Mean retention time for herbivorous colon fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitColonFermenters%20T7_04.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the reptiles, marsupial, and eutherian mammals, colon fermenters retain particulate digesta as long or longer than fluid digesta. The effects of colonic retention of particles can be muted in animals with a relatively large cecum such as the chimpanzee, orangutan and gorilla. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 7.8. Adaptations of digestive strategies to environment (from CD Chapter 7)

(Stevens 1998)

<img alt="Adaptations to desert, high altitude, and arctic regions" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitDesertHighArcticAdaptations%20T7_08.gif">

Table 9.4 (from CD Chapter 9)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCounts%20HindgutVert%20T9_04.gif">

Table 9.7b. (from CD Chapter 9)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertB%20T9_07b.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

REPTILES: Lizard

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<img alt="Sagebrush lizard" src="../images/dsv/Photos/LizardSagebrush%20Cl07_1c.jpg">

Sagebrush lizard (photo by Ted Hobert) (from CD Chapter 2)

Table 3.1. Basal or Standard Metabolic Rates at Normal Body Temperatures and Recalculated to a Uniform Body Temperature of 38’C (from CD Chapter 3)

<img alt="Basal or standard metabolic rates at normal body temperatures" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnergySMR%20BMR%20T3_1.gif">

Metabolic rate in kJ.Kg –0.75. (Modified from Schmidt-Nielsen 1984)

<img alt="Metabolic requirements, gut capacity and body mass in herbivores" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/EnergyMetReqGutContents%20F3_04.gif">

Figure 3.4. Log-log relationships between the minimal metabolic requirements/gut capacity and the body mass of herbivorous lizards and mammals. (Adapted from data of Withers 1992, and Demment and Van Soest 1985) (from CD Chapter 3)

Table 8.1. (from CD Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in amphibians &amp; reptiles" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseAmphibReptiles%20T8_01.gif">

REPTILES: Snake

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<img alt="Prairie rattlesnake" src="../images/dsv/Photos/RattlesnakePrairie%20CL07_1b.jpg">

Prairie rattlesnake (photo by Ted Hobert) (from CD Chapter 2)

<img alt="Diamond rattlesnake digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/RattlesnakeEDiamondGIT%20F5_04b.gif">

Figure 5.4. Eastern diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from CD Chapter 5)

Table 8.1. (from CD Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in amphibians &amp; reptiles" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseAmphibReptiles%20T8_01.gif">

REPTILES: Tortoise

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<img alt="Galapagos tortoise" src="../images/dsv/Photos/TortoiseGalapagos%20CL07_3d.jpg">

Galapagos tortoise (photo by Dr Michael Stoskopf) (from CD Chapter 2)

<img alt="Red-fotted tortoise digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/TortoiseRedFootedGIT%20F5_04e.gif">

Figure 5.4. Red-footed tortoise (Geochelone carbonaria) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from CD Chapter 5)

Table 7.2. Mean digesta retention time in reptiles (from CD Chapter 7)

<img alt="Transit time through the gastrointestinal tract of reptiles" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitGITReptiles%20T7_02.gif">

Liquid marker was polyethylene glycol or BaSO4. Particulate markers were segments of polyethylene tubing.

Table 7.4. Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous colon fermenters (from CD Chapter 7)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous colon fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitColonFermenters%20T7_04.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the reptiles, marsupial, and eutherian mammals, colon fermenters retain particulate digesta as long or longer than fluid digesta. The effects of colonic retention of particles can be muted in animals with a relatively large cecum such as the chimpanzee, orangutan and gorilla. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 7.8. Adaptations of digestive strategies to environment (from CD Chapter 7)

(Stevens 1998)

<img alt="Adaptations to desert, high altitude, and arctic regions" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitDesertHighArcticAdaptations%20T7_08.gif">

Table 8.1. (from CD Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in amphibians &amp; reptiles" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseAmphibReptiles%20T8_01.gif">

REPTILES: Turtle (carnivorous)

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<img alt="Snapping turtle" src="../images/dsv/Photos/TurtleSnapping%20CL07_1d.jpg">

Snapping turtle (photo by Ted Hobert) (from CD Chapter 2)

Table 8.10. (from CD Chapter 8)

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of reptiles, birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesReptilesBirdsMammals%20T8_08.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. *A: 200-1,200 g RNase per gram pancreatic tissue; B: 20-100 g per gram pancreatic tissue; C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

REPTILES: Turtle (herbivorous)

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<img alt="Florida red-bellied turtle" src="../images/dsv/Photos/TurtleFloridaRedBellied%20CL07_3c.jpg">

Florida red-bellied turtle (photo by Dr Karen Bjorndal) (from CD Chapter 2)

<img alt="Green sea turtle" src="../images/dsv/Photos/TurtleGreenSea%20CL07_3b.jpg">

Green sea turtle (photo by Dr Karen Bjorndal) (from CD Chapter 2)

Table 9.4. (from CD Chapter 9)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCounts%20HindgutVert%20T9_04.gif">

Table 9.6. (from CD Chapter 9)

<img alt="Short cahin fatty acids in the midgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAMidgutVert%20T9_06.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 9.7b. (from CD Chapter 9)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertB%20T9_07b.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

REPTILES: Turtle (omnivorous)

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<img alt="Blanding's turtle" src="../images/dsv/Photos/TurtleBlandings%20CL07_2a.jpg">

Blanding’s turtle (Mlynarski & Wermuth 1975) (from CD Chapter 2)

<img alt="False map turtle" src="../images/dsv/Photos/TurtleFalseMap%20Cl07_2b.jpg">

False map turtle (photo by Ted Hobert) (from CD Chapter 2)

<img alt="Blanding's turtle digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/TurtleBlandingsGIT%20F5_04d.gif">

Figure 5.4. Blanding’s turtle (Pseudemys scripta) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from CD Chapter 5)

Table 7.2. Mean digesta retention time in reptiles (from CD Chapter 7)

<img alt="Transit time through the gastrointestinal tract of reptiles" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitGITReptiles%20T7_02.gif">

Liquid marker was polyethylene glycol or BaSO4. Particulate markers were segments of polyethylene tubing.

Table 8.10. (from CD Chapter 8)

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of reptiles, birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesReptilesBirdsMammals%20T8_08.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. *A: 200-1,200 g RNase per gram pancreatic tissue; B: 20-100 g per gram pancreatic tissue; C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

Birds

BIRDS: Albatross

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Table 7.3. Mean digesta retention time in birds (from Chapter 7)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time in birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitGITBirds%20T7_03.gif">

Digesta transit time of birds tend to be short, and particles are generally retained longer than fluid digesta, but fluid was selectively retained in the ceca of the herbivorous ptarmigan. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

BIRDS: Blackbird

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Table 8.2. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseBirds%20T8_02.gif">

BIRDS: Budgerigar

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BIRDS: Budgerigar

<img alt="Budgerigar digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/BudgerigarGIT%20F5_05b.gif">

Figure 5.5. Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from Chapter 5)

BIRDS: Chicken

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<img alt="Leghorn chicken" src="../images/dsv/Photos/ChickenLeghorn%20CL08_2at.jpg">

Leghorn chicken (photo from Poultry Health Management, Veterinary College, NCSU) (from Chapter 2)

<img alt="Chicken digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ChickenGIT%20F5_05c.gif">

Figure 5.5. Chicken (Gallus domesticus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from Chapter 5)

Table 8.2. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseBirds%20T8_02.gif">

Table 8.10. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of reptiles, birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesReptilesBirdsMammals%20T8_08.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. *A: 200-1,200 g RNase per gram pancreatic tissue; B: 20-100 g per gram pancreatic tissue; C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

Table 8.11. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

Table 9.4. (from Chapter 9)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCounts%20HindgutVert%20T9_04.gif">

Table 11.3. (from Chapter 11)

<img alt="Immunoreactive cells inthe GIT of chickens" src="../images/dsv/Tables/NeurohumerolEndocrineCellsChicken%20T11_04.gif">

Abbreviations: SOM, somatostatin; APP, avian pancreatic polypeptide; PYY, polypeptide YY; GLUC, glucagon; SEC, secretin; VIP, vasocative intestinal peptide; GAS, gastrin; CCK, cholecystokinin; NT, neurotensin; BN, bombesin; SP, substance P; ENK, leu-enkephaline; MOT, motilin; 5-HT, serotonin. PYY data (El-Salhy et al. 1982, recently hatched chicks), ENK data (Alumnets et al. 1978, chickens), 5-HT data (unpublished observations, chicks at hatching), CCK duodenum data (Larrson and Rehfeld 1977, chickens), All other data (Rawdon and Andrew 1981, chicks at hatching). (from Rawdon 1984)

BIRDS: Crow

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Table 8.2. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseBirds%20T8_02.gif">

BIRDS: Eagle

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<img alt="Golden eagle" src="../images/dsv/Photos/EagleGolden%20CL08_1c.jpg">

Golden eagle (photo by Dr Michael Stoskopf) (from Chapter 2)

Birds:

BIRDS: Emu

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<img alt="Emu" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Emu%20CL10_1b.jpg">

Emu (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens) (from Chapter 2)

<img alt="Emu digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/EmuGIT%20F5_06d.gif">

Figure 5.6. Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from Chapter 5)

Table 7.3. Mean digesta retention time in birds (from Chapter 7)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time in birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitGITBirds%20T7_03.gif">

Digesta transit time of birds tend to be short, and particles are generally retained longer than fluid digesta, but fluid was selectively retained in the ceca of the herbivorous ptarmigan. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 9.6. (from Chapter 9)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the midgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAMidgutVert%20T9_06.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

BIRDS: Goose

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<img alt="Canada goose" src="https://www.cnsweb.org/images/dsv/Photos/GooseCanada%20kjp.jpg">

Canada goose (photo by Dr. Keith Puckett)

Table 9.7b. (from Chapter 9)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertB%20T9_07b.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

BIRDS: Grouse

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<img alt="Capercaille grouse" src="../images/dsv/Photos/GrouseCapercaille%20CL09_1a.jpg">

Capercaille grouse (photo by Dr Michael Stoskopf) (from Chapter 2)

<img alt="Ruffed grouse digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/GrouseRuffedGIT%20F5_06a.gif">

Figure 5.6. Ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from Chapter 5)

Table 7.8. Adaptations of digestive strategies to environment (from Chapter 7)

<img alt="Adaptations to desert, high altitude, and arctic regions" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitDesertHighArcticAdaptations%20T7_08.gif">

(Stevens 1998)

BIRDS: Hawk

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<img alt="Red-tailed hawk digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/HawkRedTailedGIT%20F5_05a.gif">

Figure 5.5. Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from Chapter 5)

BIRDS: Heron

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<img alt="Great blue heron" src="../images/dsv/Photos/HeronGreatBlue%20CL08_1a.jpg">

Great blue heron (photo by Chris Grondahl) (from CD Chapter 2)

BIRDS: Hoatzin

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<img alt="Hoatzin" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Hoatzin%20CL09_1c.jpg">

Hoatzin (photo by Dr Fabian Michelangeli) (from Chapter 2)

<img alt="Hoatzin digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/HoatzinGIT%20F5_06c.gif">

Figure 5.6. Hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from Chapter 5)

Table 7.6. Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters (from Chapter 7)

<img alt="Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitForegutFermenters%20T7_06.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, sloth and other eutherian mammals, foregut fermenters retain particulate digesta as long or longer than fluid digesta. Most small forestomach fermenters retain fluid and particles for equal lengths of time, but particles are selectively retained by the forestomach of large species and this tends to increase with an increase in dietary fiber. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 9.2. (from Chapter 9)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the foregut of herbivorous mammals and birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsForegutHerbMammalsBirds%20%20T9_02.gif">

Table 9.5. Short-chain fatty acids in the foregut of herbivorous birds and mammals (from Chapter 9)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the foregut of birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAForegutBirdsMammals%20T9_05.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

BIRDS: Hummingbird

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<img alt="Hummingbird" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Hummingbird.jpg">

Hummingbird (photo by ???)

<img alt="Hummingbirds" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Hummingbird2.jpg">

Hummingbirds (photo by ???)

BIRDS: Nightingale

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Table 8.2. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseBirds%20T8_02.gif">

BIRDS: Ostrich

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<img alt="Ostrich" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Ostrich%20CL10_1a.jpg">

Ostrich (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens) (from Chapter 2)

<img alt="Ostrich digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/OstrichGIT%20F5_06e.gif">

Figure 5.6. Ostrich (Struthio camelus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from Chapter 5)

Table 7.8. Adaptations of digestive strategies to environment (from Chapter 7)

<img alt="Adaptations to desert, high altitude, and arctic regions" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitDesertHighArcticAdaptations%20T7_08.gif">

(Stevens 1998)

BIRDS: Owl

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Table 8.2. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseBirds%20T8_02.gif">

BIRDS: Parrot

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<img alt="Parrot" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Parrot%20ex.jpg">

Parrot (photo by Dr Keven Flammer)

Table 8.2. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseBirds%20T8_02.gif">

BIRDS: Partridge

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Table 7.8. Adaptations of digestive strategies to environment (from CD Chapter 7)

<img alt="Adaptations to desert, high altitude and arctic regions" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitDesertHighArcticAdaptations%20T7_08.gif">

(Stevens 1998)

BIRDS: Pelican

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<img alt="Eastern white pelican" src="../images/dsv/Photos/PelicanEasternWhite%20CL08_1b.jpg">

Eastern white pelican (photo by Dr Kathy Topham) (from Chapter 2)

BIRDS: Penguin

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Table 7.3. Mean digesta retention time in birds (from Chapter 7)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time in birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitGITBirds%20T7_03.gif">

Digesta transit time of birds tend to be short, and particles are generally retained longer than fluid digesta, but fluid was selectively retained in the ceca of the herbivorous ptarmigan. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

BIRDS: Pigeon

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Table 8.2. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseBirds%20T8_02.gif">

BIRDS: Ptarmigan

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<img alt="Willow ptarmigan" src="../images/dsv/Photos/PtarmiganWillow%20CL09_1b.jpg">

Willow ptarmigan (photo by Dr Cheri Gratto-Trevor) (from CD Chapter 2)

Table 7.3. Mean digesta retention time in birds (from CD Chapter 7)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time in birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitGITBirds%20T7_03.gif">

Digesta transit time of birds tend to be short, and particles are generally retained longer than fluid digesta, but fluid was selectively retained in the ceca of the herbivorous ptarmigan. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 7.5. Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous cecum fermenters (from CD Chapter 7)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous cecum fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitCecumFermenters%20T7_05.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, marsupials, and eutherian mammals, cecum fermenters retain fluid digesta as long or longer than particulate digesta. Fluid and small digesta particles are selectively retained by the cecum of small mammals with a large cecum, especially in herbivores with a well-developed colonic separation mechanism. The longer digesta retention times of the marsupials are due, partly, to their lower rate of metabolism. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 9.7b. (from CD Chapter 9)

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertB%20T9_07b.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

BIRDS: Rhea

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<img alt="Rhea" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Rhea%20CL10_1c.jpg">

Rhea (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens) (from CD Chapter 2)

<img alt="Darwin's rhea digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/RheaDarwinsGIT%20F5_06b.gif">

Figure 5.6. Darwin’s rhea (Pterocnemia pennata) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (from CD Chapter 5)

BIRDS: Robin

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Table 8.2. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseBirds%20T8_02.gif">

BIRDS: Sparrow

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Table 8.2. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseBirds%20T8_02.gif">

BIRDS: Starling

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Table 8.2. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseBirds%20T8_02.gif">

BIRDS: Turkey

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Table 8.10. (from Chapter 8)

<img alt="Proteinase activity inthe pancreas of reptiles, birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesReptilesBirdsMammals%20T8_08.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. *A: 200-1,200 g RNase per gram pancreatic tissue; B: 20-100 g per gram pancreatic tissue; C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

Mammals

MAMMALS: Aardvark

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<img alt="Aardvark" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Aardvark%20Cl13_2a.jpg">

Aardvark (photo by Dr Michael Stoskopf)

MAMMALS: Aardwolf

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<img alt="Aardwolf" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Aardwolf%20CL15_2.jpg">

Aardwolf (Proteles cristatus) (photo by J. Visser)

<img alt="Aardwolf digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/AardwolfGIT%20F5_12d.gif">

Aardwolf (Proteles cristatus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Alpaca

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<img alt="Alpaca" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Alpaca%20CL22_2b.jpg">

Alpaca (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens)

MAMMALS: Antechinus

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Table 7.4. (CD Table 8.4)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in prototherian and metatherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesMonotremesMarsupials%20T8_04.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

MAMMALS: Armadillo

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<img alt="Nine-banded armadillo" src="../images/dsv/Photos/ArmadilloNinebanded%20CL18_1b.jpg">

Nine-banded armadillo (photo by Dr Cathy Topham)

<img alt="Armadillo digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ArmadilloGIT%20F5_14a.gif">

Armadillo (Dasypus sevenicola) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Armadillo stomach" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ArmadilloStomach%20F5_08e.gif">

Figure 4.8. Armadillo stomach showing the region of stratified squamous epithelium. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Ass

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<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.)

MAMMALS: Baboon

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<img alt="Hamadryas baboon" src="../images/dsv/Photos/BaboonHamadryas%20CL20_2.jpg">

Hamadryas baboon (photo by Jim Page)

<img alt="Olive baboon digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/BaboonOliveGIT%20F5_16a.gif">

Olive baboon (Papio anubis) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Bandicoot

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<img alt="Short-nosed bandicoot" src="../images/dsv/Photos/BandicootShortnosed%20CL16_2a.jpg">

Short-nosed bandicoot (photo by Dr Kerri Slifka)

<img alt="Short-nosed bandicoot digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/BandicootShortNosedGIT%20F5_15d.gif">

Short-nosed bandicoot (Isoodon macrourus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 7-4 (CD Table 8.5)

<img alt="Disaccahridase activity in prototherian and metatherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesMonotremesMarsupials%20T8_04.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

MAMMALS: Barasingha

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<img alt="Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

MAMMALS: Bat (carnivorous)

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<img alt="Pallid bat" src="../images/dsv/Photos/BatPallid%20CL14_2a.jpg">

Pallid bat (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens)

<img alt="Insectivorous little brown bat digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/BatInsectivorousLittle%20BrownGIT%20F5_12a.gif">

Insectivorous little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (CD Figure 5.12)

<img alt="Vampire bat digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/BatVampireDigestiveTractSlides.gif">

Figure 2. Vampire bat (Desmodus rufus). The thoracic and abdominal opened and the alimentary canal unraveled and exposed throughout its entire length. o, oesophagus; Ca, commencement of the cardiac sac of the stomach; Cd, blind end of the stomach; Py, pylorus division of the stomach; Sp, spleen; L, liver; x, entrance of bile duct into intestine; and I, I, I, the intestine. (From Flower, W. H. Lecture VII, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy of the Organs of Digestion of the Mammalia. Royal College of Surgeons of England, February and March, 1872)

<img alt="Vampire bat digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/BatVampireGIT%20F5_12b.gif">

Vampire bat (Desmodus rufus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (CD Figure 5.12)

Table 7.3. (CD Table 8.3)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseMammals%20T8_03.gif">

MAMMALS: Bat (concentrate feeders)

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<img alt="Rodruquez fruit bat" src="../images/dsv/Photos/BatRodruquezFruit%20CL14_2b.jpg">

Rodruquez fruit bat (photo by Dr Kerri Slifka)

Table 7.5a. (CD Table 8.6a)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansA%20T8_05.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

MAMMALS: Bear (omnivorous)

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<img alt="Grizzly bear" src="../images/dsv/Photos/BearGrizzly%20CL15_3a.jpg">

Grizzly bear (photo by Jim Page)

<img alt="Black bear digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/BearBlackGIT%20F5_15c.gif">

Black bear (Ursus americanus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Beaver

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<img alt="Beaver gastrointestinal tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/BeaverGIT%20Book.gif">

Beaver (Castor canadensis) gastrointestinal tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Bison

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<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

MAMMALS: Bovid, domestic

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<img alt="Jersey cow" src="../images/dsv/Photos/CowJersey%20ex.JPG">

Jersey cow (photo by Biomedical Communication Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, N. C. State University, Raleigh, NC 27606)

<img alt="Cow stomach" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/CowStomach1%20F5_09d.gif">

Figure 4.9. Ox expanded forestomach. E designates esophageal entrance, P designates pylorus, 1 designates omasum, and 2 designates abomasum. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995.) (CD Figure 5.9)

<img alt="Cow large intestine" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/CowLargeIntestine%20F5_10e.gif">

Figure 4.10. The large intestine of the ox. (Modified from de Lahunta and Habel 1986.) (CD Figure 5.10)

<img alt="Bovine reticulorumen &amp; omasum" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MotorBovineReticulorumenOmasum%20F6_03.gif">

Figure 5.3. Diagrammatic sections of bovine reticulorumen and omasum. Structures and compartments of major importance are numbered as follows: 1) cardia, 2) reticulo-omasal orifice, 3) reticulum, 4) cranial sac of rumen, 5) dorsal sac of rumen, 6) caudodorsal blind sac, 7) ventral sac of rumen, 8) caudoventral blind sac, 9) ruminoreticular fold, 10) cranial pillar, 11) right longitudinal pillar, 12) caudal pillar, 13) dorsal coronary pillar, 14) ventral coronary pillar, 15 ) omasum, 16) omasal canal, 17) omasal pillar, 18) omaso-abomasal orifice, 19) omasal lamina (leaf), 20) abomasum. (From Sellers and Stevens 1966.) (CD Figure 6.3)

<img alt="Bovine omasum contractions" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MotorBovineOmasumContractions%20F6_06.gif">

Figure 5.6. Movement of digesta through the bovine omasum. Closed arrows show movement of digesta and open arrows show movement of forestomach walls. Diagrammatic axial section (see Fig. 5.3) shows the cranial reticulum (1), reticulo-omasal orifice (2), omasal leaf portion of omasal body (3), omasal canal (4) and cranial abomasum (5). A: All structures are relaxed during much of the cyclic contraction of the forestomach. B: During the second reticular contraction, the reticulo-omasal orifice and omasal canal are pulled ventrally, producing a negative pressure in the canal and a closing and then opening of the orifice, which results in aspiration of digesta from the base of the reticulum. C: Primary contraction of the rumen is associated with a primary contraction of the reticulo-omasal orifice and omasal canal, forcing fluid and small digesta particles between the leaves of the omasal body and into the abomasum. These events are followed by relaxation of these structures (D), and repeated if the forestomach undergoes a secondary contraction. E: At intervals that vary and are unrelated to the cyclic contractions of the forestomach, a wave of contraction passes over the omasal body, releasing its contents into the abomasum. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.) (CD Figure 6.6)

<img alt="Reticulorumen contractions" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/MotorReticulorumenRuminationContractions%20F6_07.gif">

Figure 5.7. Reticuloruminal cycles during rumination in cattle. Numbers 1 and 2 mark first and second reticular contractions seen with every cycle and the x marks the extra reticular cycle at the regurgitation stage (R) of rumination. The remasticated bolus is swallowed (D) just prior to the next reticulorumen cycle. The AP on the reticular tracing is a registration of abdominal press at the time of eructation (E). (From Stevens and Sellers 1968.) (CD Figure 6.7)

Table 6.6. Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters (CD Table 7.6)

<img alt="Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitForegutFermenters%20T7_06.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, sloth and other eutherian mammals, foregut fermenters retain particulate digesta as long or longer than fluid digesta. Most small forestomach fermenters retain fluid and particles for equal lengths of time, but particles are selectively retained by the forestomach of large species and this tends to increase with an increase in dietary fiber. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 7.5b. (CD Table 8.6b)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansB%20T8_06.gif">

Enzymatic activity is designated as + (present), trace or 0 (absent). Results in brackets indicate use of and alternate substrate. All data from adult specimens. (from Vonk and Western 1984 plus perissodactyla data from Roberts 1975)

Table 7.7. (CD Table 8.10)

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of reptiles, birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesReptilesBirdsMammals%20T8_08.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. *A: 200-1,200 g RNase per gram pancreatic tissue; B: 20-100 g per gram pancreatic tissue; C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

Table 8.2. (CD Table 9.2)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the foregut of herbivorous mammals and birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsForegutHerbMammalsBirds%20%20T9_02.gif">

<img alt="Composition of rumen gases" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/MicrobialRumenGases%20F9_04.gif">

Figure 8.5. Composition of rumen gases in a dairy cow on a ration of hay and grain (Washburn and Brody 1937) (CD Figure 9.5)

Table 8.5. Short-chain fatty acids in the foregut of herbivorous birds and mammals. (CD Table 9.5)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the foregut of birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAForegutBirdsMammals%20T9_05.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Buffalo

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<img alt="African buffalo" src="../images/dsv/Photos/BuffaloAfrican%20CL23_1b.jpg">

African buffalo (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens)

<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

MAMMALS: Bush baby

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<img alt="Bush baby" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Bushbaby%20CL20_1.jpg">

Bush baby (photo by Jennifer Campbell)

<img alt="Bush baby digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/BushBabyGIT%20F5_13e.gif">

Bush baby (Galago crassicaudatus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Concentrations of short chain fatty acids in the gastrointestinal tract of mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/MicrobialSCFACarnOmniHerb%20F9_05.gif">

Figure 8.6. Concentrations of VFA (SCFA) along the gastrointestinal tracts of mammalian carnivores, omnivores, and herbivores. Animals were fed a at 12 hour intervals. Each value represents the mean (+/- SE) of 12 samples, consisting of three samples collected at two, four, eight, and 12 hours after a meal, from the oral (S1) and aboral (S2) segments of the stomach, three equal-length segments of the small intestine (SI1, SI2, SI3), the cecum (Ce), and two or three equal-length segments of the colon (C1, C2, C3). (Modified from Argenzio et al. 1974; Clemens et al. 1975a; Clemens and Stevens 1979; Clemens 1980.) (CD Figure 9.6)

MAMMALS: Camel

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<img alt="Bactrian camel" src="../images/dsv/Photos/CamelBactrian%20CL22_2a.jpg">

Bactrian camel (photo by Dr Michael Stoskopf) < go to CD

<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

Table 8.5. Short-chain fatty acids in the foregut of herbivorous birds and mammals. (CD Table 9.5)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the foregut of birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAForegutBirdsMammals%20T9_05.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Capybara

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<img alt="Capybara" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Capybara%20CL19_1c.jpg">

Capybara (photo by Dr Kathy Topham)

<img alt="Capybara gastrintestinal tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/CapybaraGIT%20Book.gif">

Capybara (Hydrochaerus hydrochaeris) gastrointestinal tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 8.4 (CD Table 9.4)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCounts%20HindgutVert%20T9_04.gif">

MAMMALS: Cat, domestic

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<img alt="Cat digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/CatGIT%20F5_13a.gif">

Cat (Felis domestica) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Mass specific metabolic rate for eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/EnergyMassSpecificMR%20F3_01.gif">

Figure 2.1. Relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate (ml O2/g.h) or metabolic intensity and log of body mass for eutherian mammals ranging from 6 g shrews to 1,300-kg elephants. Note the inverse relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate and body mass. (From Schmidt-Nielsen 1984). (CD Figure 3.1)

<img alt="Cat colon" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MotorCatColon%20F6_14.jpg">

Figure 5.14. Relationship between digesta flow and electrical slow waves and migrating spike bursts in the cat colon. Slow waves (SW) appear to originate from a pacemaker midway along the colon, spread toward the cecum, and tend to produce digesta flow in the same direction. Migrating spike bursts (MSB) begin at a variable position in the proximal colon and migrate toward the rectum. These are accompanied by contractions, which tend to move digesta in that direction. (From Christensen et al. 1974) (CD Figure 6.14)

Table 7.5a. (CD Table 8.6a)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansA%20T8_05.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of pasive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

<img alt="Elestrolyte transport across the acinar cells of the parotid salivary gland" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ElectrolytesTransportAcinarParotidSalivary%20F10_08.gif">

Figure 9.8. Electrolyte transport across the acinar cells of the parotid salivary glands of humans, dogs, cats, and rats. (Modified from Cook, Van Lennep, Roberts, and Young 1994.) (CD Figure 10.8)

<img alt="Effects of increased flow rate on the electrolyte composition of pancreatic fluid of cats" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/ElectrolytesIncreaseFlowPancreaticFluid%20F10_10.jpg">

Figure 9.10. Effects of an increase in the flow rate of the electrolyte composition of pancreatic fluid of cats. (From Argent and Case 1994.) (CD Figure 10.10)

MAMMALS: Chimpanzee

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<img alt="Chimpanzee digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ChimpanzeeGIT%20F5_16b.gif">

Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Chinchilla

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<img alt="Chinchilla gastrointestinal tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ChinchillaGIT%20Book.gif">

Chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera) gastrointestinal tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Colobus monkey

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<img alt="Colobus monkey" src="../images/dsv/Photos/MonkeyColobus%20CL20_3.jpg">

Colobus monkey (photo by Jim Page)

<img alt="Colobus monkey digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MonkeyColobusGIT%20F5_19c.gif">

Colobus monkey (Colobus abyssinicus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Colobus monkey stomach" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MonkeyColobusStomach%20F5_08g.gif">

Figure 4.8. Colobus monkey stomach showing the region of stratified squamous epithelium. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995) (CD Figure 5.8)

Table 6.6. Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters (CD Table 7.6)

<img alt="Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitForegutFermenters%20T7_06.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, sloth and other eutherian mammals, foregut fermenters retain particulate digesta as long or longer than fluid digesta. Most small forestomach fermenters retain fluid and particles for equal lengths of time, but particles are selectively retained by the forestomach of large species and this tends to increase with an increase in dietary fiber. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

Table 8.2. (CD Table 9.2)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the foregut of herbivorous mammals and birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsForegutHerbMammalsBirds%20%20T9_02.gif">

Table 8.5. Short-chain fatty acids in the foregut of herbivorous birds and mammals. (CD Table 9.5)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the foregut of birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAForegutBirdsMammals%20T9_05.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Dik-dik

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<img alt="Gunther's dik-dik digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/DikDikGunther&apos;sGIT%20F5_20b.gif">

Gunther’s dik-dik (Madoqua guentheri) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Dog, domestic

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<img alt="Dog" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Dog%20ex.jpg">

Dog (photo by Biomedical Communication Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, N. C. State University, Raleigh, NC 27606)

<img alt="Dog digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/DogGIT%20F5_12e.gif">

Dog (Canis familiaris) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Mass specific metabolic rate for eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/EnergyMassSpecificMR%20F3_01.gif">

Figure 2.1. Relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate (ml O2/g.h) or metabolic intensity and log of body mass for eutherian mammals ranging from 6 g shrews to 1,300-kg elephants. Note the inverse relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate and body mass. (From Schmidt-Nielsen 1984). (CD Figure 3.1)

<img alt="Dog large intestine" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/DogLargeIntestine%20F5_10b.gif">

Figure 4.10. The large intestine of the dog. (Modified from de Lahunta and Habel 1986.) (CD Figure 5.10)

<img alt="Passage of markers through the gastrointestinal tract pf the dog" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitDogGIT%20F7_01a.gif">

Figure 6.1. Percentage of digesta fluid and particulate markers (+/- SE) recovered from the gastrointestinal tract of the dog at various times following their oral administration during feeding. Fluid markers consisted of PEG or 51Cr-EDTA. Plastic markers consisted of polyethylene tubing with an outside diameter of 2 mm, cut into lengths of 2 mm. S = stomach; SI = small intestine; C = colon; Fe = feces. Particles were selectively retained by the stomach and the large intestine. (Modified from Banta et al. 1979.) (CD Figure 7.1a)

Table 7.3. (CD Table 8.3)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseMammals%20T8_03.gif">

Table 7.5a. (CD Table 8.6a)

<img alt="Disaccahridase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansA%20T8_05.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

Table 7.7. (CD Table 8.10)

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of reptiles, birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesReptilesBirdsMammals%20T8_08.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. *A: 200-1,200 g RNase per gram pancreatic tissue; B: 20-100 g per gram pancreatic tissue; C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

<img alt="Concentrations of short chain fatty acids in the gastrointestinal tract of mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/MicrobialSCFACarnOmniHerb%20F9_05.gif">

Figure 8.6. Concentrations of VFA (SCFA) along the gastrointestinal tracts of mammalian carnivores, omnivores, and herbivores. Animals were fed a at 12 hour intervals. Each value represents the mean (+/- SE) of 12 samples, consisting of three samples collected at two, four, eight, and 12 hours after a meal, from the oral (S1) and aboral (S2) segments of the stomach, three equal-length segments of the small intestine (SI1, SI2, SI3), the cecum (Ce), and two or three equal-length segments of the colon (C1, C2, C3). (Modified from Argenzio et al. 1974; Clemens et al. 1975a; Clemens and Stevens 1979; Clemens 1980.) (CD Figure 9.6)

Table 8.7a. (CD Table 9.7a)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertA%20T9_07a.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

<img alt="Digesta pH in the gastrointestinal tract of dogs" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/ElectrolytesDigestaPhDogs%20%20F10_04a.gif">

Figure 9.4a. Mean (+/- SE) values for digesta pH in the gastrointestinal tract of dogs 2 hours (closed triangle), 4 hours (open circle), 8 hours (x), and 12 hours (closed circle) after a meal. The segments of the tract are the cranial (S1) and caudal (S2) halves of the stomach, equal succeeding segments of small intestine (SI1, SI2, SI3), the cecum (Ce), and equal lengths of succeeding segments of colon (C1, C2). (From Banta et al, 1979) (CD Figure 10.4a)

<img alt="Elestrolyte transport across the acinar cells of the parotid salivary gland" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ElectrolytesTransportAcinarParotidSalivary%20F10_08.gif">

Figure 9.8. Electrolyte transport across the acinar cells of the parotid salivary glands of humans, dogs, cats, and rats. (Modified from Cook, Van Lennep, Roberts, and Young 1994.) (CD Figure 10.8)

MAMMALS: Dolphin

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<img alt="Atlantic bottlenose dolphin" src="../images/dsv/Photos/DolphinAtlanticBottlenose%20Cl13_3a.jpg">

Atlantic bottlenose dolphin (photo by Dr Kerri Slifka)

<img alt="Atlantic whiteside dolphin digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/DolphinAtlanticWhitesideGIT%20F5_11b.gif">

Atlantic whiteside dolphin (Lagenorhynchus acutus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hune 1995)

<img alt="Dolphin stomach" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/DolphinStomach%20F5_08c.gif">

Figure 4.8. Dolphin stomach showing the region of stratified squamous epithelium. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995) (CD Figure 5.8)

MAMMALS: Dugong

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<img alt="Dugong" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Dugong%20CL25_1b.jpg">

Dugong (photo by Duane Yates)

<img alt="Dugong digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/DugongGIT%20F5_20d.gif">

Dugong (Dugong dugong) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 8.7a. (CD Table 9.7a)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertA%20T9_07a.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

MAMMALS: Echidna

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<img alt="Echidna" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Echidna%20CL13_1b.jpg">

Echidna (photo by Dr Kerri Slifka)

<img alt="Short-nosed echidna GIT" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/EchidnaShortNosedGIT%20F5_11a.gif">

Short-nosed echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Echidna stomach" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/EchidnaStomach%20F5_08a.gif">

Figure 4.8. Echidna stomach showing the region of stratified squamous epithelium. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995) (CD Figure 5.8)

Table 7-4 (CD Table 8.5)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in prototherian and metatherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesMonotremesMarsupials%20T8_04.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

MAMMALS: Eland

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<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

MAMMALS: Elephant shrew

(masked shrew, tree shrew listed separately)

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<img alt="Elephant shrew digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ElephantShrewGIT%20F5_11d.gif">

Elephant shrew (Rhynchoyon chrysopygus) digestive tract (Stevens & hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Elephant

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<img alt="African elephant" src="../images/dsv/Photos/ElephantAfrican%20CL25_1a.jpg">

African elephant (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens) < go to CD

<img alt="African elephant digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ElephantAfricanGIT%20F5_17f.gif">

African elephant (Loxodonta africana) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Mass specific metabolic rate for eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/EnergyMassSpecificMR%20F3_01.gif">

Figure 2.1. Relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate (ml O2/g.h) or metabolic intensity and log of body mass for eutherian mammals ranging from 6 g shrews to 1,300-kg elephants. Note the inverse relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate and body mass. (From Schmidt-Nielsen 1984). (CD Figure 3.1)

<img alt="Skull of a margay, and tooth of an Asian elephant" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/CharacteristicsMargaySkullAsianElephantTooth%20F5_07B.jpg">

Figure 3.4. Skull of a South American Margay (Felis tigerina) and the mandibular tooth of an Asian elephant. The elephant tooth has a weight about equal to a telephone book, and the dark band (gingival crest) marks the separation between the root and the crown. (Contributed by David A. Fagan, The Colyer Institute, P. O. Box 26118, San Diego, CA) (CD Figure 5.7b)

<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

Table 7-5b (CD Table 8.6b)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansB%20T8_06.gif">

Enzymatic activity is designated as + (present), trace or 0 (absent). Results in brackets indicate use of and alternate substrate. All data from adult specimens. (from Vonk and Western 1984 plus perissodactyla data from Roberts 1975)

Table 8.4 (CD Table 9.4)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCounts%20HindgutVert%20T9_04.gif">

Table 8.7a. (CD Table 9.7a)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertA%20T9_07a.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

MAMMALS: Flying squirrel

(ground squirrel, squirrel listed separately)

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<img alt="Flying squirrel" src="../images/dsv/Photos/FlyingSquirrel%20CharleneMeredith.jpg">

Flying squirrel (photo by Charlene Meredith)

<img alt="Mass specific metabolic rate for eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/EnergyMassSpecificMR%20F3_01.gif">

Figure 2.1. Relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate (ml O2/g.h) or metabolic intensity and log of body mass for eutherian mammals ranging from 6 g shrews to 1,300-kg elephants. Note the inverse relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate and body mass. (From Schmidt-Nielsen 1984). (CD Figure 3.1)

MAMMALS: Fox

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Table 7-3 (CD Table 8.3)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseMammals%20T8_03.gif">

MAMMALS: Gaur

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<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

MAMMALS: Gemsbok

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<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

MAMMALS: Giant/great anteater

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<img alt="Giant anteater" src="../images/dsv/Photos/AnteaterGiant%20CL18_1a.jpg">

Giant anteater (photo by Dr Kerri Slifka)

MAMMALS: Giant panda

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<img alt="Giant panda" src="../images/dsv/Photos/PandaGiant%20CL15_3b.jpg">

Giant panda (photo by Dr Ellen Dierenfeld)

MAMMALS: Giraffe

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<img alt="Giraffe" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Giraffe%20CL23_1c.jpg">

Giraffe (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens)

<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

MAMMALS: Glider

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<img alt="Greater glider digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/GliderGreaterGIT%20F5_18f.gif">

Greater glider (Petauroides volans) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 6.5. Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous cecum fermenters (CD Table 7.5)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous cecum fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitCecumFermenters%20T7_05.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, marsupials, and eutherian mammals, cecum fermenters retain fluid digesta as long or longer than particulate digesta. Fluid and small digesta particles are selectively retained by the cecum of small mammals with a large cecum, especially in herbivores with a well-developed colonic separation mechanism. The longer digesta retention times of the marsupials are due, partly, to their lower rate of metabolism. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 8.7b. (CD Table 9.7b)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertB%20T9_07b.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

MAMMALS: Gorilla

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<img alt="Gorilla" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Gorilla%20ces.jpg">

Gorilla (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens)

Table 6.4. Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous colon fermenters (CD Table 7.4)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous colon fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitColonFermenters%20T7_04.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the reptiles, marsupial, and eutherian mammals, colon fermenters retain particulate digesta as long or longer than fluid digesta. The effects of colonic retention of particles can be muted in animals with a relatively large cecum such as the chimpanzee, orangutan and gorilla. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Ground squirrel

(flying squirrel, squirrel listed separately)

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<img alt="Ground squirrel" src="../images/dsv/Photos/GroundSquirrel%20CL19_1d.jpg">

Ground squirrel (photo by Chris Grondahl)

MAMMALS: Guinea pig

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<img alt="Guinea pig digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/GuineaPigGIT%20F5_18a.gif">

Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 6.5. Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous cecum fermenters (CD Table 7.5)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous cecum fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitCecumFermenters%20T7_05.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, marsupials, and eutherian mammals, cecum fermenters retain fluid digesta as long or longer than particulate digesta. Fluid and small digesta particles are selectively retained by the cecum of small mammals with a large cecum, especially in herbivores with a well-developed colonic separation mechanism. The longer digesta retention times of the marsupials are due, partly, to their lower rate of metabolism. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 7.5b. (CD Table 8.6b)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansB%20T8_06.gif">

Enzymatic activity is designated as + (present), trace or 0 (absent). Results in brackets indicate use of and alternate substrate. All data from adult specimens. (from Vonk and Western 1984 plus perissodactyla data from Roberts 1975)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

Table 8.7a. (CD Table 9.7a)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertA%20T9_07a.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

Table 8.8. (CD Table 9.8)

<img alt="Vitamin requirements for growth of rabbits, guinea pigs, and mice" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialVitRequRabbitGuineapigMice%20T9_08.gif">

MAMMALS: Hamster

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<img alt="Common hamster digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/HamsterCommonGIT%20F5_20a.gif">

Hamster (Cricetus cricetus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 7-3 (CD Table 8.3)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseMammals%20T8_03.gif">

Table 7-5b (CD Table 8.6b)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansB%20T8_06.gif">

Enzymatic activity is designated as + (present), trace or 0 (absent). Results in brackets indicate use of and alternate substrate. All data from adult specimens. (from Vonk and Western 1984 plus perissodactyla data from Roberts 1975)

Table 8.5. Short-chain fatty acids in the foregut of herbivorous birds and mammals. (CD Table 9.5)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the foregut of birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAForegutBirdsMammals%20T9_05.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Hegdehog

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<img alt="European hedgehog" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Hedgehog%20CL14_1b.jpg">

Hedgehog (photo by Dr Michael Stoskopf)

<img alt="European hedgehog digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/HedgehogEuropeanGIT%20F5_15a.gif">

European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 7.3. (CD Table 8.3)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseMammals%20T8_03.gif">

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

MAMMALS: Hippopotamus

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Hippopotamus (photo by Duarte Diaz)

Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Figure 4.9. Hippopotamus expanded forestomach. E designates esophageal entrance, and P designates pylorus. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995.) (CD Figure 5.9)

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

MAMMALS: Horse, Pony, domestic

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<img alt="Horse and foal" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Horse%20ex.JPG">

Horse, mare with colt (photo by Biomedical Communication Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, N. C. State University, Raleigh, NC 27606)

<img alt="Pony gastrointestinal tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/PonyGIT%20F5_17c.gif">

Pony (Equus caballus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Mass specific metabolic rate for eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/EnergyMassSpecificMR%20F3_01.gif">

Figure 2.1. Relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate (ml O2/g.h) or metabolic intensity and log of body mass for eutherian mammals ranging from 6 g shrews to 1,300-kg elephants. Note the inverse relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate and body mass. (From Schmidt-Nielsen 1984). (CD Figure 3.1)

<img alt="Longitudinal and cross sections of the horse skull" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/CharacteristicsHorseSkullCrossSection%20F5_07.gif">

Figure 3.3. A longitudinal and cross section of the horse skull. Most mammals have teeth and jaws that aid in the procurement and breakdown of food. The lower jaw or mandible is narrower than the upper jaw, and its lateral to and fro movements provide an extremely efficient mechanism for grinding of food. (From Norman and Weishampel, 1985.) (CD Figure5.7a)

<img alt="Horse stomach" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/HorseStomach1%20F5_08i.gif">

Figure 4.8. Horse stomach showing the region of stratified squamous epithelium. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995) (CD Figure 5.8)

<img alt="Horse large intestine" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/HorseLargeIntestine%20F5_10c.gif">

Figure 4.10. The large intestine of the horse. (Modified from de Lahunta and Habel 1986.) (CD Figure 5.10)

Table 6.4. Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous colon fermenters (CD Table 7.4)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous colon fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitColonFermenters%20T7_04.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the reptiles, marsupial, and eutherian mammals, colon fermenters retain particulate digesta as long or longer than fluid digesta. The effects of colonic retention of particles can be muted in animals with a relatively large cecum such as the chimpanzee, orangutan and gorilla. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 7.5b. (CD Table 8.6b)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansB%20T8_06.gif">

Enzymatic activity is designated as + (present), trace or 0 (absent). Results in brackets indicate use of and alternate substrate. All data from adult specimens. (from Vonk and Western 1984 plus perissodactyla data from Roberts 1975)

Table 7.7. (CD Table 8.10)

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of reptiles, birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesReptilesBirdsMammals%20T8_08.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. *A: 200-1,200 g RNase per gram pancreatic tissue; B: 20-100 g per gram pancreatic tissue; C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

Table 8.3. (CD Table 9.3)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the midgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsMidgutVert%20T9_03.gif">

<img alt="Concentrations of short chain fatty acids in the gastrointestinal tract of mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/MicrobialSCFACarnOmniHerb%20F9_05.gif">

Figure 8.6. Concentrations of VFA (SCFA) along the gastrointestinal tracts of mammalian carnivores, omnivores, and herbivores. Animals were fed a at 12 hour intervals. Each value represents the mean (+/- SE) of 12 samples, consisting of three samples collected at two, four, eight, and 12 hours after a meal, from the oral (S1) and aboral (S2) segments of the stomach, three equal-length segments of the small intestine (SI1, SI2, SI3), the cecum (Ce), and two or three equal-length segments of the colon (C1, C2, C3). (Modified from Argenzio et al. 1974; Clemens et al. 1975a; Clemens and Stevens 1979; Clemens 1980.) (CD Figure 9.6)

Table 8.6. (CD Table 9.6)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the midgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAMidgutVert%20T9_06.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 8.7a. (CD Table 9.7a)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertA%20T9_07a.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

<img alt="Water and volatile fatty acids in the large intestines of ponies after feeding" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/MicrobialVolumeTransmucosalVFA%20F9_06.gif">

Figure. 8.7. Volume, net transmucosal flux of water, and net appearance and disappearance of VFA (SCFA) in the large intestine of ponies, with time after feeding. All values, other than volume, are corrected for exchanges between segments that resulted from digesta flow. (Modified from Argenzio et al. 1974 a,b.) (CD Figure 9.7)

<img alt="Colonic water exchange, plasma renin activity, and aldosterone levels in ponies" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/MicrobialColonicWaterPlasmaReninAldosterone%20F9_08.gif">

Figure 8.9. Relationship between colonic water exchange, plasma renin activity, and aldosterone levels in ponies fed a pelleted hay-grain diet at 12-hour intervals. (From Clarke et al. 1990a.) (CD Figure 9.9)

Table 9.1. (CD Table 10.1)

<img alt="Daily secretion and absorption of fluid in the digestive system" src="../images/dsv/Tables/ElectrolytesDailySecretionAbsorption%20T10_01.gif">

(human data: Soergal & Hofmann 1972; sheep data: Denton 1957, Harrison 1962, Hill 1965, Kay 1960, Kay & Pfeffer 1970, MaGee 1961, Taylor 1961; pony data: Alexander & Hickson 1970, Argenzio et al. 1974)

<img alt="Digesta osmolality and concentrations of the major electrolytes in the gastrointestinal tract of the pony" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/ElectrolytesDigestaOsmolality%20F10_03.gif">

Figure 9.3. Mean digesta osmolality and concentrations of the major electrolytes along the gastrointestinal tract of the pony obtained from four measurements over a 12-h period after a meal. Segments represent the stomach (S), three equal segments of the small intestine (SI), the cecum (C), and the ventral (VC), dorsal (DC) and small (SC) colon. Hydrogen was omitted, because it is only a small component (1 mEq/L) of the cations, even in gastric contents. Concentrations of PO4— were calculated on the basis of a pKa of 6.8 for NaH2PO4 and the mean pH of digesta in each segment. The principal organic acids (OA) are SCFA and lactic acid. At the pH of intestinal contents, ammonia, SCFA and lactic acid exist principally in their ionized form. Concentrations of HCO3- were calculated as the difference in concentration of measured cations and anions. (Modified from Argenzio 1975). (CD Figure 10.3)

<img alt="Digesta pH in the gastrointestinal tract of ponies" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/ElectrolytesDigestaPhPonies%20F10_04c.gif">

Figure 9.4c. Mean (+/- SE) values for digesta pH in the gastrointestinal tract of ponies 2 hours (closed triangle), 4 hours (open circle), 8 hours (x), and 12 hours (closed circle) after a meal. The segments of the tract are the cranial (S1) and caudal (S2) halves of the stomach, equal succeeding segments of small intestine (SI1, SI2, SI3), the cecum (Ce), and equal lengths of succeeding segments of colon (RVC, LVC, LDC, RDC, SC1, SC2). (Argenzio et al. 1974.) (CD Figure 10.4c)

MAMMALS: Howler monkey

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Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

Table 8.7a. (CD Table 9.7a)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertA%20T9_07a.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

MAMMALS: Human

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<img alt="Adult human digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/HumanAdultGIT%20F5_16c.gif">

Adult human (homo sapiens) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Human fetus digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/HumanFetusGIT%20F5_16d.gif">

Human fetus digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Mass specific metabolic rate for eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/EnergyMassSpecificMR%20F3_01.gif">

Figure 2.1. Relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate (ml O2/g.h) or metabolic intensity and log of body mass for eutherian mammals ranging from 6 g shrews to 1,300-kg elephants. Note the inverse relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate and body mass. (From Schmidt-Nielsen 1984). (CD Figure 3.1)

<img alt="Adult human large intestines" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/HumanLargeIntestine%20F5_10a.gif">

Figure 4.10. The large intestine of the human. (Modified from de Lahunta and Habel 1986.) (CD Figure 5.10)

<img alt="Electrical rhythm human stomach" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MotorElectricalRhythmHumanStomach%20F6_02.gif">

Figure 5.2. Basal electrical rhythm of the human stomach. Slow waves of partial depolarization of the circular muscle is initiated by a pacemaker and passes over the distal half of the stomach. These initiate contractions when accompanied by spike potentials. (Stevens 2002) (CD Figure 6.2)

Table 7.3. (CD Table 8.3)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseMammals%20T8_03.gif">

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

Table 8.3. (CD Table 9.3)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the midgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsMidgutVert%20T9_03.gif">

Table 8.4. (CD Table 9.4)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCounts%20HindgutVert%20T9_04.gif">

Table 8.7a. (CD Table 9.7a)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertA%20T9_07a.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

Table 9.1. (CD Table 10.1)

<img alt="Daily secretion and absorption of fluid in the digestive system" src="../images/dsv/Tables/ElectrolytesDailySecretionAbsorption%20T10_01.gif">

Values for humans are estimates for an individual starved for 24 hours prior to measurements (Soergal & Hofmann 1972). Other values are means for sheep (Denton 1957, Harrison 1962, Hill 1965, Kay 1960, Kay & Pfeffer 1970, MaGee 1961, Taylor 1961), and means for ponies (Alexander & Hickson 1970, Argenzio et al. 1974)

Table 9.2. (CD Table 10.2)

<img alt="Body fluid compartments" src="../images/dsv/Tables/ElectrolytesBodyFluidCompartments%20T10_02.gif">

(Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Electrolyte composition of extracellular and intracellular fluid compartments of humans" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ElectrolytesCompositionExtracellularIntracellularCompartments%20F10_01.gif">

Figure 9.1. Electrolyte composition of extracellular and intracellular fluid compartments of humans. (Modified from Guyton 1986) (CD Figure 10.1)

<img alt="Concentrations of major electrolytes in the parotid saliva" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/ElectrolytesConentrationParotidSaliva%20F10_07.gif">

Figure 9.7. Concentration of major electrolytes in the saliva of humans (From Thaysen, Thorn, and Schwartz 1954) and sheep (From Argenzio 1984a) as a function of the rate of salivary flow. (CD Figure 10.7)

<img alt="Elestrolyte transport across the acinar cells of the parotid salivary gland" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ElectrolytesTransportAcinarParotidSalivary%20F10_08.gif">

Figure 9.8. Electrolyte transport across the acinar (A and B) and duct (C) cells of the parotid salivary glands of humans, dogs, cats, and rats. (Modified from Cook, Van Lennep, Roberts, and Young 1994.) (CD Figure 10.8)

<img alt="Sodium ion transport across human intestinal epithelium" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ElectrolytesTransportPathwaysSodium%20F10_12a.gif">

Figure 9.12a. Pathways for the transport of sodium ions across human intestinal epithelium. The thickness of arrow heads represents relative degree of transport. (From Chang and Rao 1994.) (CD Figure 10.12a)

<img alt="Chlorine ion transport across human intestinal epithelium" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ElectrolytesTransportPathwaysChlorine%20F10_12b.gif">

Figure 9.12b. Pathways for the transport of chlorine ions across human intestinal epithelium. The thickness of arrow heads represents relative degree of transport. (From Chang and Rao 1994.) (CD Figure 10.12b)

<img alt="Potassium ion transport across human intestinal epithelium" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ElectrolytesTransportPathwaysPotassium%20F10_12c.gif">

Figure 9.12. Pathways for the transport of ions across human intestinal epithelium. The thickness of arrow heads represents relative degree of transport. (From Chang and Rao 1994.) (CD Figure 10.12)

MAMMALS: Hyrax

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<img alt="Rock hyrax" src="../images/dsv/Photos/HyraxRock%20CL25_1c.jpg">

Rock hyrax (photo by Dr Claudia Obrock)

<img alt="Rock hyrax digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/HyraxRockGIT%20F5_20c.gif">

Rock hyrax (Procavia habessinica) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Hyrax stomach" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/HyraxStomach%20F5_08j.gif">

Figure 4.8. Hyrax stomach showing the region of stratified squamous epithelium. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995) (CD Figure 5.8)

Table 6.8. Adaptations of digestive strategies to environment (CD Table 7.8)

<img alt="Adaptations to desert, high altitude, and arctic regions" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitDesertHighArcticAdaptations%20T7_08.gif">

(Stevens 1998)

Table 8.5. Short-chain fatty acids in the foregut of herbivorous birds and mammals. (CD Table 9.5)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the foregut of birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAForegutBirdsMammals%20T9_05.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 8.7a. (CD Table 9.7a)

<img alt="Short cahin fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertA%20T9_07a.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

MAMMALS: Ibex

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<img alt="Nubian ibex" src="../images/dsv/Photos/IbexNubian%20CL23_1a.jpg">

Nubian ibex (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens)

MAMMALS: Kangaroo Mouse

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<img alt="Mass specific metabolic rate" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/EnergyMassSpecificMR%20F3_01.gif">

Figure 2.1. Relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate (ml O2/g.h) or metabolic intensity and log of body mass for eutherian mammals ranging from 6 g shrews to 1,300-kg elephants. Note the inverse relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate and body mass. (From Schmidt-Nielsen 1984). (CD Figure 3.1)

MAMMALS: Kangaroo

(rat kangaroo listed separately)

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<img alt="Red kangaroo" src="../images/dsv/Photos/KangarooRed%20CL17_1a.jpg">

Red kangaroo (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens) < go to CD

<img alt="Eastern grey kangaroo digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/KangarooEasternGreyGIT%20F5_19b.gif">

Eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Kangaroo stomach" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/KangarooStomach1%20F5_08d.gif">

Figure 4.8. Kangaroo stomach showing the region of stratified squamous epithelium. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995) (CD Figure 5.8)

<img alt="Kangaroo stomach" src="https://www.cnsweb.org/images/dsv/GITFigures/KangarooStomacp%20F5_09c.gif">

Figure 4.9. Kangaroo expanded forestomach. E designates esophageal entrance, and P designates pylorus. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995.) (CD Figure 5.9)

Table 6.6. Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters (CD Table 7.6)

<img alt="Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitForegutFermenters%20T7_06.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, sloth and other eutherian mammals, foregut fermenters retain particulate digesta as long or longer than fluid digesta. Most small forestomach fermenters retain fluid and particles for equal lengths of time, but particles are selectively retained by the forestomach of large species and this tends to increase with an increase in dietary fiber. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

<img alt="Digestive strategies" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitProteinFermentSolutes%20F7_08.gif">

Figure 6.6. Variations in digestive strategy with respect to dietary combinations of refractory carbohydrates (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin), and protein (A) or fermentable solutes (B). The size and shape of the boxes represent the range of diets within which each digestive strategy is postulated to be effective. (From Cork et al. 1999.) (CD Figure 7.8)

Table 7-4 (CD Table 8.5)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in prototherian and metatherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesMonotremesMarsupials%20T8_04.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

Table 8.2 (CD Table 9.2)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the foregut of herbivorous mammals and birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsForegutHerbMammalsBirds%20%20T9_02.gif">

Table 8.5. Short-chain fatty acids in the foregut of herbivorous birds and mammals. (CD Table 9.5)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the foregut of birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAForegutBirdsMammals%20T9_05.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Koala

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<img alt="Koala" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Koala%20CL17_1c.jpg">

Koala (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens)

<img alt="Koala digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/KoalaGIT%20F5_18e.gif">

Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 6.5. Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous cecum fermenters (CD Table 7.5)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous cecum fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitCecumFermenters%20T7_05.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, marsupials, and eutherian mammals, cecum fermenters retain fluid digesta as long or longer than particulate digesta. Fluid and small digesta particles are selectively retained by the cecum of small mammals with a large cecum, especially in herbivores with a well-developed colonic separation mechanism. The longer digesta retention times of the marsupials are due, partly, to their lower rate of metabolism. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 7-4 (CD Table 8.5)

<img alt="Disaccahridase activity in prototherian and metatherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesMonotremesMarsupials%20T8_04.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

Table 8.7b. (CD Table 9.7b)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertB%20T9_07b.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

MAMMALS: Langur monkey

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Table 6.8. Adaptations of digestive strategies to environment (CD Table 7.8)

<img alt="Adaptations to high altitude" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitDesertHighArcticAdaptations%20T7_08.gif">

(Stevens 1998)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

MAMMALS: Lion

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<img alt="African lion" src="../images/dsv/Photos/LionAfrican%20CL15_1b.jpg">

African lion (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens)

Table 7-5a (CD Table 8.6a)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activty in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansA%20T8_05.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

MAMMALS: Llama

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<img alt="Llama digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/LlamaGIT%20F5_19e.gif"> 

Llama (Llama glama) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Llama stomach" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/LlamaStomach%20F5_09b.gif">

Figure 4.9. Llama expanded forestomach. E designates esophageal entrance, and P designates pylorus. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995.) (CD Figure 5.9)

<img alt="Llama stomach" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MotorLlamaStomach%20F6_08.gif"> 

Figure 5.8. Schematic representation of the llama stomach. The esophagus (1) enters the first compartment (A), which is partially divided into cranial (3) and caudal (4) sacs by a pillar of muscle (7), and separated from the second compartment (B) by a constriction (8). Both compartments include regions of saccules (5,6,9) containing cardiac glandular mucosa. A ventricular groove (2) runs along the lesser curvature of the forestomach between the esophagus and the third compartment (C). The initial four-fifths of the third compartment is also lined with cardiac glandular mucosa (11,12). The terminal segment (13) is lined with proper gastric mucosa and separated from a duodenal ampulla (D), by a pyloric sphincter (14). (From Vallenas, Cummings, and Munnel 1971.) (CD Figure 6.8)

<img alt="Llama stomach 2" src="https://www.cnsweb.org/images/dsv/GITFigures/MotorLlamaStomacp%20F6_09.gif">

Figure 5.9. Left, lateral, longitudinal section of the llama stomach showing the entrance of the esophagus (A), transverse pillar (B) between the cranial and caudal sacs of the first compartment and entrance to the second compartment (C). It also shows the openings to the glandular saccules in the first compartment. (Modified from Vallenas, Cummings, and Munnel 1971.) (CD Figure 6.9)

<img alt="Llama forestomach contractions" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/MotorLlamaForestomachContractions%20F6_10.gif"> 

Figure 5.10. Pressure recording of cyclic contractions of llama forestomach. (From Vallenas and Stevens 1971a.) (CD Figure 6.10)

<img alt="Llama stomach contractions" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MotorLlamaStomachContractions%20F6_11.gif">

Figure 5.11. Cyclic contraction of the first compartment of the llama forestomach. A-D show contractions of pillar and sacs. Cyclic eversion of caudal sac pouches during the three stages of contraction is shown in drawings on the right. (From Vallenas and Stevens 1971a.) (CD Figure 6.11)

Table 6.6. Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters (CD Table 7.6)

<img alt="Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitForegutFermenters%20T7_06.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, sloth and other eutherian mammals, foregut fermenters retain particulate digesta as long or longer than fluid digesta. Most small forestomach fermenters retain fluid and particles for equal lengths of time, but particles are selectively retained by the forestomach of large species and this tends to increase with an increase in dietary fiber. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Macaque monkey

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<img alt="Macaque digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MacaqueGIT%20F5_14e.gif">

Macaque (Macaca mulatta) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

MAMMALS: Masked shrew

(elephant shrew, tree shrew listed separately)

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<img alt="Masked shrew" src="../images/dsv/Photos/ShrewMasked%20CL14_1a.jpg">

Masked shrew (photo by Chris Crondahl)

<img alt="Mass specific metabolic rate for eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/EnergyMassSpecificMR%20F3_01.gif">

Figure 2.1. Relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate (ml O2/g.h) or metabolic intensity and log of body mass for eutherian mammals ranging from 6 g shrews to 1,300-kg elephants. Note the inverse relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate and body mass. (From Schmidt-Nielsen 1984). (CD Figure 3.1)

MAMMALS: Mink

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<img alt="Mink digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MinkGIT%20F5_12c.gif">

Mink (Mustela vision) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 7-5a (CD Table 8.6a)

<img alt="Disaccahridase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansA%20T8_05.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

MAMMALS: Mole

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<img alt="European mole digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MoleGIT%20F5_11e.gif">

European mole (Talpa europaea) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 7-3 (CD Table 8.3)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseMammals%20T8_03.gif">

MAMMALS: Mouse

(kangaroo mouse listed separately)

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<img alt="Mass specific metabolic rate for eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/EnergyMassSpecificMR%20F3_01.gif">

Figure 2.1. Relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate (ml O2/g.h) or metabolic intensity and log of body mass for eutherian mammals ranging from 6 g shrews to 1,300-kg elephants. Note the inverse relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate and body mass. (From Schmidt-Nielsen 1984). (CD Figure 3.1)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

Table 8.8. (CD Table 9.8)

<img alt="Vitamin requirements for growth of rabbits, guinea pigs, and mice" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialVitRequRabbitGuineapigMice%20T9_08.gif">

MAMMALS: Muskox

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<img alt="Muskox" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Muskox%20CL23_1d.jpg">

Muskox (photo by Dr Michael Stoskopf)

MAMMALS: Night monkey

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<img alt="Night monkey gastrointestinal tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MonkeyNightGIT%20Book.gif">

Night monkey (Aotus trivirgatus) gastrointestinal tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

MAMMALS: Nilgae

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<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

MAMMALS: Opossum

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<img alt="Virginia opossum" src="../images/dsv/Photos/OpossumVirginia%20CL16_2b.jpg">

Virginia opossum (photo by Dr Kerri Slifka)

<img alt="Opossum digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/OpossumGIT%20F5_15e.gif">

Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Orangutan

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<img alt="Orangutan" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Orangutan%20CL21_1.jpg">

Orangutan (photo by J. Visser)

<img alt="Orangutan digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/OrangutanGIT%20F5_17b.gif">

Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 6.4. Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous colon fermenters (CD Table 7.4)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous colon fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitColonFermenters%20T7_04.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the reptiles, marsupial, and eutherian mammals, colon fermenters retain particulate digesta as long or longer than fluid digesta. The effects of colonic retention of particles can be muted in animals with a relatively large cecum such as the chimpanzee, orangutan and gorilla. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Peccary

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<img alt="Collared peccary" src="../images/dsv/Photos/PeccaryCollared%20CL22_1b.jpg">

Collared peccary (photo by Dr Keri Slifka)

Table 7-5b (CD Table 8.6b)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansB%20T8_06.gif">

Enzymatic activity is designated as + (present), trace or 0 (absent). Results in brackets indicate use of and alternate substrate. All data from adult specimens. (from Vonk and Western 1984 plus perissodactyla data from Roberts 1975)

Table 8.2 (CD Table 9.2)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the foregut of herbivorous mammals and birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsForegutHerbMammalsBirds%20%20T9_02.gif">

MAMMALS: Phascogale

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<img alt="Bush-tailed phascogale digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/PhascogaleBushTailedGIT%20F5_13c.gif">

Bush-tailed phascogale (Phascogale tapoatafa) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume1995)

MAMMALS: Pig, domestic

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<img alt="Pig" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Pig%20ex.jpg"> 

Pig (photo by Biomedical Communication Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, N. C. State University, Raleigh, NC 27606)

<img alt="Pig digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/PigGIT%20F5_16e.gif">

Pig (Sus scrofa) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Pig large intestine" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/PigLargeIntestine%20F5_10d.gif">

Figure 4.10. The large intestine of the pig. (Modified from de Lahunta and Habel 1986.) (CD Figure 5.10)

<img alt="Passage of markers through the gastrointestinal tract of the pig" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitPigGIT%20F7_01b.gif">

Figure 6.2. Percentage of digesta fluid and particulate markers (+/- SE) recovered from the gastrointestinal tract of the pig at various times following their oral administration during feeding. Fluid markers consisted of PEG or 51Cr-EDTA. Plastic markers consisted of polyethylene tubing with an outside diameter of 2 mm, cut into lengths of 2 mm. S = stomach; SI = small intestine; Ce = cecum; PC = proximal colon; C = colon; TC = terminal colon. Particles were selectively retained by the stomach and the large intestine. (Modified from Clemens, Stevens, and Southworth 1975.) (CD Figure 7.1b)

Table 7-3 (CD Table 8.3)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseMammals%20T8_03.gif">

Table 7-5b (CD Table 8.6b)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansB%20T8_06.gif">

Enzymatic activity is designated as + (present), trace or 0 (absent). Results in brackets indicate use of and alternate substrate. All data from adult specimens. (from Vonk and Western 1984 plus perissodactyla data from Roberts 1975)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

<img alt="Concentrations of short chain fatty acids in the gastrointestinal tract of mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/MicrobialSCFACarnOmniHerb%20F9_05.gif">

Figure 8.6. Concentrations of VFA (SCFA) along the gastrointestinal tracts of mammalian carnivores, omnivores, and herbivores. Animals were fed a at 12 hour intervals. Each value represents the mean (+/- SE) of 12 samples, consisting of three samples collected at two, four, eight, and 12 hours after a meal, from the oral (S1) and aboral (S2) segments of the stomach, three equal-length segments of the small intestine (SI1, SI2, SI3), the cecum (Ce), and two or three equal-length segments of the colon (C1, C2, C3). (Modified from Argenzio et al. 1974; Clemens et al. 1975a; Clemens and Stevens 1979; Clemens 1980.) (CD Figure 9.6)

Table 8.7a. (CD Table 9.7a)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertA%20T9_07a.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

<img alt="Digesta pH in the gastrointestinal tract of pigs" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/ElectrolytesDigestaPhPigs%20F10_04b.gif">

Figure 9.4b. Mean (+/- SE) values for digesta pH in the gastrointestinal tract of pigs 2 hours (closed triangle), 4 hours (open circle), 8 hours (x), and 12 hours (closed circle) after a meal. The segments of the tract are the cranial (S1) and caudal (S2) halves of the stomach, equal succeeding segments of small intestine (SI1, SI2), the cecum (Ce), and equal lengths of succeeding segments of colon (PC, CCp, CCa, TC), plus the rectum (R). (Argenzio and Southworth 1974) (CD Figure 10.4b)

MAMMALS: Platypus

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<img alt="Duck-billed platypus" src="../images/dsv/Photos/DuckbilledPlatypus%20CL13_1a.jpg">

Duck-billed platypus (photo by Paul Scott) < go to CD

<img alt="Platypus gastrointestinal tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/PlatypusGIT%20Book.gif">

Duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Pony

(see also Horse)

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<#8216 & #8217>

Pony (Equus caballus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Porcupine

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<img alt="Brush-tailed porcupine gastrointestinal tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/PorcupineBrushTailedGIT%20Book.gif">

Brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus africanus) gastrointestinal tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Possum

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Table 6.5. Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous cecum fermenters (CD Table 7.5)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous cecum fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitCecumFermenters%20T7_05.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, marsupials, and eutherian mammals, cecum fermenters retain fluid digesta as long or longer than particulate digesta. Fluid and small digesta particles are selectively retained by the cecum of small mammals with a large cecum, especially in herbivores with a well-developed colonic separation mechanism. The longer digesta retention times of the marsupials are due, partly, to their lower rate of metabolism. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 7-4 (CD Table 8.5)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in prototherian and metatherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesMonotremesMarsupials%20T8_04.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

Table 8.7b. (CD Table 9.7b)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertB%20T9_07b.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

MAMMALS: Quokka

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Table 8.2 (CD Table 9.2)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the foregut of herbivorous mammals and birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsForegutHerbMammalsBirds%20%20T9_02.gif">

MAMMALS: Quoll

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<img alt="Eastern quoll" src="../images/dsv/Photos/QuollEastern%20CL16_1b.jpg">

Eastern quoll (photo by Paul Scott)

<img alt="Tiger quoll digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/QuollTigerGIT%20F5_13d.gif">

Tiger quoll (Dasyurus maculatus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 7-4 (CD Table 8.5)

<img alt="Disaccahridase activity in prototherian and metatherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesMonotremesMarsupials%20T8_04.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

MAMMALS: Rabbit

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<img alt="Rabbit" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Rabbit%20CL24_1b.jpg">

Rabbit (photo by Dr Kerri Slifka)

<img alt="European rabbit digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/RabbitEuropeanGIT%20F5_18c.gif">

European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Mass specific metabolic rate for eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/EnergyMassSpecificMR%20F3_01.gif">

Figure 2.1. Relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate (ml O2/g.h) or metabolic intensity and log of body mass for eutherian mammals ranging from 6 g shrews to 1,300-kg elephants. Note the inverse relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate and body mass. (From Schmidt-Nielsen 1984). (CD Figure 3.1)

<img alt="Passage through the gastrointestinal tract of the rabbit" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitRabbitGIT%20F7_01c.gif">

Figure 6.3. Percentage of digesta fluid and particulate markers recovered from the gastrointestinal tract of the rabbit at various times following their oral administration during feeding. Fluid markers consisted of PEG or 51Cr-EDTA. Plastic markers consisted of polyethylene tubing with an outside diameter of 2 mm, cut into lengths of 2 mm. S = stomach; SI = small intestine; Ce = cecum; C = colon; Fe = feces. Particles were selectively retained by the stomach, but fluid was selectively retained by the cecum of rabbits, with a more rapid excretion of particles. (Modified from Pickard and Stevens 1972.) (CD Figure 7.1c)

Table 6.5. Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous cecum fermenters (CD Table 7.5)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous cecum fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitCecumFermenters%20T7_05.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, marsupials, and eutherian mammals, cecum fermenters retain fluid digesta as long or longer than particulate digesta. Fluid and small digesta particles are selectively retained by the cecum of small mammals with a large cecum, especially in herbivores with a well-developed colonic separation mechanism. The longer digesta retention times of the marsupials are due, partly, to their lower rate of metabolism. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 7.3. (CD Table 8.3)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseMammals%20T8_03.gif">

Table 7.5b. (CD Table 8.6b)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansB%20T8_06.gif">

Enzymatic activity is designated as + (present), trace or 0 (absent). Results in brackets indicate use of and alternate substrate. All data from adult specimens. (from Vonk and Western 1984 plus perissodactyla data from Roberts 1975)

Table 7.7. (CD Table 8.10)

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of reptiles, birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesReptilesBirdsMammals%20T8_08.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. *A: 200-1,200 g RNase per gram pancreatic tissue; B: 20-100 g per gram pancreatic tissue; C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

Table 8.7a. (CD Table 9.7a)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertA%20T9_07a.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

Table 8.8. (CD Table 9.8)

<img alt="Vitamin requirements for growth of rabbits, guinea pigs, and mice" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialVitRequRabbitGuineapigMice%20T9_08.gif">

MAMMALS: Raccoon

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<img alt="Common raccoon digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/RaccoonCommonGIT%20F5_15b.gif">

Raccoon (Procyon lotor) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Concentrations of short chain fatty acids in the gastrointestinal tract of mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/MicrobialSCFACarnOmniHerb%20F9_05.gif">

Figure 8.6. Concentrations of VFA (SCFA) along the gastrointestinal tracts of mammalian carnivores, omnivores, and herbivores. Animals were fed a at 12 hour intervals. Each value represents the mean (+/- SE) of 12 samples, consisting of three samples collected at two, four, eight, and 12 hours after a meal, from the oral (S1) and aboral (S2) segments of the stomach, three equal-length segments of the small intestine (SI1, SI2, SI3), the cecum (Ce), and two or three equal-length segments of the colon (C1, C2, C3). (Modified from Argenzio et al. 1974; Clemens et al. 1975a; Clemens and Stevens 1979; Clemens 1980.) (CD Figure 9.6)

MAMMALS: Rat kangaroo

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Table 6.6. Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters (CD Table 7.6)

<img alt="Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitForegutFermenters%20T7_06.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, sloth and other eutherian mammals, foregut fermenters retain particulate digesta as long or longer than fluid digesta. Most small forestomach fermenters retain fluid and particles for equal lengths of time, but particles are selectively retained by the forestomach of large species and this tends to increase with an increase in dietary fiber. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

<img alt="Digestive strategies" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitProteinFermentSolutes%20F7_08.gif">

Figure 6.6. Variations in digestive strategy with respect to dietary combinations of refractory carbohydrates (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin), and protein (A) or fermentable solutes (B). The size and shape of the boxes represent the range of diets within which each digestive strategy is postulated to be effective. (From Cork et al. 1999.) (CD Figure 7.8)

MAMMALS: Rat

(mole rat, rat kangaroo listed separately)

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<img alt="Norway rat" src="../images/dsv/Photos/RatNorway%20CL19_1a.jpg">

Norway rat (photo by E J Taylor)

<img alt="Norway rat digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/RatNorwayGIT%20F5_14b.gif">

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Mass specific metabolic rate for eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/EnergyMassSpecificMR%20F3_01.gif">

Figure 2.1. Relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate (ml O2/g.h) or metabolic intensity and log of body mass for eutherian mammals ranging from 6 g shrews to 1,300-kg elephants. Note the inverse relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate and body mass. (From Schmidt-Nielsen 1984). (CD Figure 3.1)

<img alt="Rat stomach" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/RatStomach%20F5_08h.gif">

Figure 4.8. Rat stomach showing the region of stratified squamous epithelium. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995) (CD Figure 5.8)

Table 7.3. (CD Table 8.3)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseMammals%20T8_03.gif">

Table 7.5b. (CD Table 8.6b)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansB%20T8_06.gif">

Enzymatic activity is designated as + (present), trace or 0 (absent). Results in brackets indicate use of and alternate substrate. All data from adult specimens. (from Vonk and Western 1984 plus perissodactyla data from Roberts 1975)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

Table 8.7a. (CD Table 9.7a)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertA%20T9_07a.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

<img alt="Submaxillary salivary gland of the rat" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ElectrolytesSalivaryGlandRat%20F10_06.gif">

Figure 9.6. Organization of the submaxillary gland of the rat (from Leeson 1967) (CD Figure 10.6)

<img alt="Elestrolyte transport across the acinar cells of the parotid salivary gland" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ElectrolytesTransportAcinarParotidSalivary%20F10_08.gif">

Figure 9.8. Electrolyte transport across the acinar cells of the parotid salivary glands of humans, dogs, cats, and rats. (Modified from Cook, Van Lennep, Roberts, and Young 1994.) (CD Figure 10.8)

MAMMALS: Rhinoceros

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<img alt="White rhinoceros" src="../images/dsv/Photos/RhinocerosWhite%20CL24_2a.jpg">
White rhinoceros (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens) < go to CD

<img alt="Black rhinoceros digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/RhinocerosBlackGIT%20F5_17e.gif">

Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

MAMMALS: Scaly anteater/pangolin

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<img alt="Pangolin / Scaly anteater" src="../images/dsv/Photos/AnteaterScaly%20CL13_2b.jpg"> 

Scaly anteater (photo by Dr Michael Stoskopf)

<img alt="Scaly anteater stomach" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ScalyAnteaterStomach%20F5_08b.gif">

Figure 4.8. Scaly anteater stomach showing the region of stratified squamous epithelium. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995) (CD Figure 5.8)

MAMMALS: Sea Lion

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Table 7-5a (CD Table 8.6a)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansA%20T8_05.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

MAMMALS: Seal

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<img alt="Harbor seal digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/SealHarborGIT%20F5_13b.gif">

Harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 7-5a (CD Table 8.6a)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansA%20T8_05.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

MAMMALS: Sheep, domestic

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<img alt="Sheep" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Sheep%20ex.jpg"> 

Sheep (photo by Biomedical Communication Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, N. C. State University, Raleigh, NC 27606)

<img alt="Sheep digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/SheepGIT%20F5_19d.gif"> 

Sheep (Ovis aries) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Mass specific metabolic rate for eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/EnergyMassSpecificMR%20F3_01.gif">

Figure 2.1. Relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate (ml O2/g.h) or metabolic intensity and log of body mass for eutherian mammals ranging from 6 g shrews to 1,300-kg elephants. Note the inverse relationship between mass-specific metabolic rate and body mass. (From Schmidt-Nielsen 1984). (CD Figure 3.1)

Table 6.6. Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters (CD Table 7.6)

<img alt="Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitForegutFermenters%20T7_06.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, sloth and other eutherian mammals, foregut fermenters retain particulate digesta as long or longer than fluid digesta. Most small forestomach fermenters retain fluid and particles for equal lengths of time, but particles are selectively retained by the forestomach of large species and this tends to increase with an increase in dietary fiber. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 7.3. (CD Table 8.3)

<img alt="Chitinase activity in mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesChitinaseMammals%20T8_03.gif">

Table 7.5b. (CD Table 8.6b)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansB%20T8_06.gif">

Enzymatic activity is designated as + (present), trace or 0 (absent). Results in brackets indicate use of and alternate substrate. All data from adult specimens. (from Vonk and Western 1984 plus perissodactyla data from Roberts 1975)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

Table 8.2. (CD Table 9.2)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the foregut of herbivorous mammals and birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsForegutHerbMammalsBirds%20%20T9_02.gif">

Table 8.5. Short-chain fatty acids in the foregut of herbivorous birds and mammals. (CD Table 9.5)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the foregut of birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAForegutBirdsMammals%20T9_05.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 9.1. (CD Table 10.1)

<img alt="Daily secretion and absorption of fluid in the digestive system" src="../images/dsv/Tables/ElectrolytesDailySecretionAbsorption%20T10_01.gif">

(human data: Soergal & Hofmann 1972; sheep data: Denton 1957, Harrison 1962, Hill 1965, Kay 1960, Kay & Pfeffer 1970, MaGee 1961, Taylor 1961; pony data: Alexander & Hickson 1970, Argenzio et al. 1974)

Table 9.2. (CD Table 10.2)

<img alt="Body fluid compartments" src="../images/dsv/Tables/ElectrolytesBodyFluidCompartments%20T10_02.gif">

(Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Concentrations of major electrolytes in the parotid saliva" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/ElectrolytesConentrationParotidSaliva%20F10_07.gif">

Figure 9.7. Concentration of major electrolytes in the saliva of humans (From Thaysen, Thorn, and Schwartz 1954) and sheep (From Argenzio 1984a) as a function of the rate of salivary flow. (CD Figure 10.7)

MAMMALS: Sloth

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<img alt="Hoffmann's sloth" src="../images/dsv/Photos/SlothHoffmanns%20CL18_1c.jpg">

Hoffmann’s sloth (photo by Dr Kerri Slifka)

<img alt="Pale-throated 3-toed sloth digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/SlothPaleThroated3ToedGIT%20F5_19a.gif">

Pale-throated 3-toed sloth (Bradypus tridactylus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="3-toed sloth stomach" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/Sloth3ToedStomach%20F5_08f.gif">

Figure 4.8. Three-toed sloth stomach showing the region of stratified squamous epithelium. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995) (CD Figure 5.8)

<img alt="Sloth stomach" src="https://www.cnsweb.org/images/dsv/GITFigures/SlothStomacp%20F5_09e.gif">

Figure 4.9. Sloth expanded forestomach. E designates esophageal entrance, and P designates pylorus. (Modified from Stevens and Hume 1995.) (CD Figure 5.9)

Table 6.6. Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters (CD Table 7.6)

<img alt="Mean retention time for herbivorous forestomach fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitForegutFermenters%20T7_06.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, sloth and other eutherian mammals, foregut fermenters retain particulate digesta as long or longer than fluid digesta. Most small forestomach fermenters retain fluid and particles for equal lengths of time, but particles are selectively retained by the forestomach of large species and this tends to increase with an increase in dietary fiber. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

Table 8.2 (CD Table 9.2)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the foregut of herbivorous mammals and birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsForegutHerbMammalsBirds%20%20T9_02.gif">

Table 8.5. Short-chain fatty acids in the foregut of herbivorous birds and mammals. (CD Table 9.5)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the foregut of birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAForegutBirdsMammals%20T9_05.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Squirrel monkey

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<img alt="Squirrel monkey digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MonkeySquirrelGIT%20F5_14c.gif">

Squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

MAMMALS: Squirrel

(flying squirrel, ground squirrel listed separately)

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<img alt="Eastern gray squirrel" src="https://www.cnsweb.org/images/dsv/Photos/SquirrelEasternGray%20kjp.jpg">

Eastern gray squirrel (photo by Dr. Keith Puckett)

Table 7-5b (CD Table 8.6b)

<img alt="Disaccharidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansB%20T8_06.gif">

Enzymatic activity is designated as + (present), trace or 0 (absent). Results in brackets indicate use of and alternate substrate. All data from adult specimens. (from Vonk and Western 1984 plus perissodactyla data from Roberts 1975)

MAMMALS: Tapir

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<img alt="South American tapir" src="../images/dsv/Photos/TapirSouthAmerican%20CL24_2b.jpg">

South American tapir (photo by Dr Kathy Topham) < go to CD

<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

MAMMALS: Tasmanian devil

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<img alt="Tasmanian devil" src="../images/dsv/Photos/TasmanianDevil%20CL16_1a.jpg">

Tasmanian devil (photo by Paul Scott)

MAMMALS: Tree shrew

(elephant shrew, masked shrew listed separately)

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<no image>

Tree shrew

MAMMALS: Vervet monkey

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<img alt="Vervet monkey digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MonkeyVervetGIT%20F5_14d.gif">

Vervet monkey (Ceropithecus pygerythrus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="TRansmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

Table 8.4. (CD Table 9.4)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCounts%20HindgutVert%20T9_04.gif">

<img alt="Concentrations of short chain fatty acids in the gastrointestinal tract of mammals" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/MicrobialSCFACarnOmniHerb%20F9_05.gif">

Figure 8.6. Concentrations of VFA (SCFA) along the gastrointestinal tracts of mammalian carnivores, omnivores, and herbivores. Animals were fed a at 12 hour intervals. Each value represents the mean (+/- SE) of 12 samples, consisting of three samples collected at two, four, eight, and 12 hours after a meal, from the oral (S1) and aboral (S2) segments of the stomach, three equal-length segments of the small intestine (SI1, SI2, SI3), the cecum (Ce), and two or three equal-length segments of the colon (C1, C2, C3). (Modified from Argenzio et al. 1974; Clemens et al. 1975a; Clemens and Stevens 1979; Clemens 1980.) (CD Figure 9.6)

MAMMALS: Vole

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<img alt="Pine vole" src="../images/dsv/Photos/VolePine%20CL19_1b.jpg">

Pine vole (photo by Bryce Ryan)

<img alt="Meadow vole digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/VoleMeadowGIT%20F5_18b.gif">

Meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995) (CD Figure 5.18)

<img alt="Stoamch of the vole" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/VoleStomachSlide.gif">

Figure 2. Stomach of the vole Microtus arvalis (From Flower, W. H. Lecture VIII, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy of the Organs of Digestion of the Mammalia. Royal College of Surgeons of England, February and March, 1872)

<img alt="Cecum and colon of the lemming" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/LemmingCecumColonBook.gif">

Figure 3. Cecum and colon of the Scandinavian lemming. AC, ampulla coli; C, cecum; CS, colonic spiral; C, distal colon (Sperber, Bjornhag, and Riderstrale 1983)

Table 6.5. Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous cecum fermenters (CD Table 7.5)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous cecum fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitCecumFermenters%20T7_05.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the bird, marsupials, and eutherian mammals, cecum fermenters retain fluid digesta as long or longer than particulate digesta. Fluid and small digesta particles are selectively retained by the cecum of small mammals with a large cecum, especially in herbivores with a well-developed colonic separation mechanism. The longer digesta retention times of the marsupials are due, partly, to their lower rate of metabolism. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Wallaby

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Table 7.7. (CD Table 8.10)

<img alt="Proteinase activity in the pancreas of reptiles, birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesProteinasesReptilesBirdsMammals%20T8_08.gif">

Enzyme activities expressed as the equivalent amount of bovine trypsin (casein or BAEE) or chymotrypsin (BTEE) under the same conditions. *A: 200-1,200 g RNase per gram pancreatic tissue; B: 20-100 g per gram pancreatic tissue; C: 0-20 µg RNase per gram pancreatic tissue. (from Vonk and Western 1984)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

Table 8.2. (CD Table 9.2)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the foregut of herbivorous mammals and birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsForegutHerbMammalsBirds%20%20T9_02.gif">

Table 8.5. Short-chain fatty acids in the foregut of herbivorous birds and mammals. (CD Table 9.5)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the foregut of birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAForegutBirdsMammals%20T9_05.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Walrus

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Table 7-5a (CD Table 8.6a)

<img alt="Disacchardidase activity in eutherian mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesDisaccharidasesEutheriansA%20T8_05.gif">

All data on adult specimens are expressed in µmoles substrate/minute per gram (wet weight) of mucosa. (modified from Vonk and Western 1984)

MAMMALS: Warthog

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<img alt="Warthog" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Warthog%20CL22_1a.jpg">

Warthog (photo by Dr Kerri Slifka)

MAMMALS: Waterbuck

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<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)

MAMMALS: Whale

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<img alt="Atlantic right whale" src="../images/dsv/Photos/WhaleAtlanticRight%20CL13_3b.jpg">

Atlantic right whale (photo by Jennifer Campbell)

<img alt="Sperm whale digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/WhaleSpermGIT%20F5_11c.gif">

Sperm whale (Physeter catodon) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 8.2 (CD Table 9.2)

<img alt="Microbial counts in the foregut of herbivorous mammals and birds" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialCountsForegutHerbMammalsBirds%20%20T9_02.gif">

Table 8.5. Short-chain fatty acids in the foregut of herbivorous birds and mammals. (CD Table 9.5)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the foregut of birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAForegutBirdsMammals%20T9_05.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Wildebeest

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<img alt="Wildebeest" src="../images/dsv/Photos/Wildebeest%20ces.jpg">

Wildebeest (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens)

Table 8.5. Short-chain fatty acids in the foregut of herbivorous birds and mammals. (CD Table 9.5)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the foregut of birds and mammals" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAForegutBirdsMammals%20T9_05.gif">

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Wolf

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<img alt="Red wolf" src="../images/dsv/Photos/WolfRed%20CL15_1a.jpg">

Red wolf (photo by Bob Edmondson)

MAMMALS: Wombat

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<img alt="Hairy-nosed wombat" src="../images/dsv/Photos/WombatHairynosed%20CL17_1b.jpg">

Hairy-nosed wombat (photo by Dr Kerri Slifka)

<img alt="Common wombat digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/WombatCommonGIT%20F5_17a.gif">

Wombat (Vombatus ursinus) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 6.4. Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous colon fermenters (CD Table 7.4)

<img alt="Mean digesta retention time for herbivorous colon fermenters" src="../images/dsv/Tables/TransitColonFermenters%20T7_04.gif">

Although digesta retention times are affected by differences in the diet, and in the body temperatures of the reptiles, marsupial, and eutherian mammals, colon fermenters retain particulate digesta as long or longer than fluid digesta. The effects of colonic retention of particles can be muted in animals with a relatively large cecum such as the chimpanzee, orangutan and gorilla. (modified from Stevens and Hume 1995)

Table 8.7a. (CD Table 9.7a)

<img alt="Short chain fatty acids in the hindgut of vertebrates" src="../images/dsv/Tables/MicrobialSCFAHindgutVertA%20T9_07a.gif">

* Absorption from cecum (or ceca) alone.

Dashes indicate absence of information. Contributions of SCFA to maintenance energy were estimated from the rate of SCFA production by in vitro isotope dilution or measurements of digesta flow. Total maintenance energy was either calculated as twice the BMR or assumed to be equivalent to ad libitum digestible energy intake in captive, nonreproducing, and adult animals. (From Stevens and Hume 1995.)

MAMMALS: Woodchuck

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<img alt="Woodchuck gastrointestinal tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/WoodchuckGIT%20Book.gif">

Woodchuck (Marmota monax) gastrointestinal tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

MAMMALS: Woolly monkey

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<img alt="Woolly monkey gastrointestinal tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/MonkeyWoollyGIT%20Book.gif">

Woolly monkey (Lagothrix lagothricha) gastrointestinal tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

Table 7.8. (CD Table 8.11)

<img alt="Transmission of passive immunity" src="../images/dsv/Tables/EnzymesPassiveImmunity%20T8_11.gif">

0, no absorption or transfer; + to +++, degrees of absorption or transfer. (from Brambell 1970)

MAMMALS: Zebra

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<img alt="Plains zebra" src="../images/dsv/Photos/ZebraPlains%20CL24_2c.jpg">

Plains zebra (photo by Dr. Ed Stevens) < go to CD

<img alt="Plains zebra digestive tract" src="../images/dsv/GITFigures/ZebraCommonGIT%20F5_17d.gif">

Plains zebra (Equus burchelli) digestive tract (Stevens & Hume 1995)

<img alt="Cell wall digestibility and retention time" src="../images/dsv/Graphs/TransitCellWallDigest%20F7_07.gif">

Figure 6.7. Relationship between cell wall digestibility and mean retention time (MRT) of fiber by foregut and colon fermenters on a grass hay diet. Red circles represent foregut fermenting ruminants and camels; a) barasigha, b) eland, c) nilgae, d) wapiti, e) water buck, f) gaur, g) giraffe, h) gemsbok, i) African buffalo, j) American bison, k) dromedary camel, and l) bactrian camel. Blue circles represent colon fermenting a) Grevy’s zebra, b) mountain zebra, c) plains zebra, d) Asian tapir, e) American tapir, f) Asian wild ass, g) African elephant, h) Asian elephant, i) black rhino, j) Indian rhino, and k) white rhino. R2 = 0.66 for the ruminants and camels and 0.26 for colon fermenters. Yellow triangles represent; (1) red kangaroos on an alfalfa diet, river hippos on an (2) alfalfa hay or (3) grass diet, and (4) sloths on a diet of Ceropia palmata foliage. Data for ruminants, camels, hippos, and colon fermenters are from Foose (1982). Data on red kangaroos are from Hume (1999) and data on the three-toed sloth are from Foley et al. (1995) and Foley (personal communication.) (CD Figure 7.7)